Spatial modelling of industrial heat loads and recovery potentials in the UK

This paper presents a spatial model of industrial heat loads and technical recovery potentials in the UK, by recourse to energetic and exergetic analysis methods. The aims were to categorise heat users into broad temperature bands; quantify heat usage and wastage at different temperatures; and to estimate the technical potential for heat recovery based on current technologies (whilst ignoring spatial and temporal constraints). The main data source was the UK National Allocation Plan for the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, supplemented by capacity/output and specific energy consumption data for certain heterogeneous sectors. Around 60% of industry has been covered in terms of energy use, and 90% of energy-intensive sectors. The total annual heat use for these sectors was estimated at 650 PJ, with technically feasible annual savings in the region 36–71 PJ. This is in agreement with the only extant estimates for heat recovery from industrial processes, which are 65 and 144 PJ, respectively.     

Estimates of GHG emission reduction potential by country,sector, and cost

In this study, emission reduction potentials in greenhouse gases (GHG) are assessed by country, sector, and cost using a GHG emission reduction assessment model with high resolutions with respect to region and technology and high consistency in terms of assumptions, interrelationships, and solution principles. Model analyses show that large potential reductions can be achieved at low cost in developing countries and power sectors. In addition, cost-efficient emission reductions were evaluated for some international emission reduction targets that have been derived on the basis of the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities among developed and developing countries. If (1) emission reduction measures at negative costs and below 50 $/tCO₂ for developed countries, (2) intensity improvement measures for selected sectors at negative costs and below 20 $/tCO₂ for major developing countries, and (3) all emission reduction measures with negative costs for other developing countries in 2020 are adopted, then emission reductions of 8.9, 14.8, and 27.7 GtCO₂ eq./yr compared to the technology-frozen case can be expected in developed countries, major developing countries, and globally, corresponding to a 11% decrease, 40% increase, and 17% increase from 2005 levels, respectively. Large-scale emission reductions can be achieved even if CO₂-intensity targets for major sectors are assumed for major developing countries.     

Prospects of India's energy and emissions for a long time frame

For any nation, sector-wise forecasts of energy demand and emissions are becoming valuable elements in devising its national and international policies relating to energy security, local environment, and global climate change. It is in this context that this work attempts to forecast India's possible energy demands and emissions adopting a key indicator approach on least cost generation expansion optimization methodology for a long time frame. This study developed key indicators for useful-energy demand for end-use sectors such as industry, commerce, and residence. Key indicators for transport sector and non-energy use sectors were developed on transport mobility demand and end-use fuel demand. The main drivers of these key indicators are socio-economic parameters. This work was conducted in a linear programmed (LP) TIMES G5 model on TIMES modeling framework for model horizon of 1990–2100. By the end of the 21st-century, India's energy demands are projected to be about 1825 Mtoe of primary energy, 1263 Mtoe of final energy consumption, 4840 TWh of electricity generations, 723 Mtoe of energy import, and 4414 Mt of CO₂ emissions.     

Potentials and costs of carbon dioxide mitigation in the world's buildings

Buildings are responsible for over a third of global energy-related carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. A significant share of these emissions can be avoided cost effectively through improved energy efficiency, while providing the same or higher level of energy services. How large is this emission reduction potential globally and how much will it cost for society to unlock it? This paper provides answers to these questions, presenting the results of bottom-up research conducted for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), based on the assessment of 80 country- or regional-level mitigation studies throughout the world. First, the paper analyses the findings of these studies in a common framework. Then, it aggregates their results into a global estimate of CO₂ mitigation potential. The paper concludes that by 2020 it is possible to cut cost effectively approximately 29% of buildings-related global CO₂ emissions, the largest among all sectors reported by the IPCC, representing a 3.2 GtCO₂eq. reduction. Developing countries house the largest cost-effective potential with up to 52% of building-level emissions, whereas transition economies and industrialised countries have cost-effective potentials of up to 37% and 25%, respectively. Energy-efficient lighting was identified as the most attractive measure worldwide, in terms of both reduction potential and cost effectiveness. If this potential is realised, the building-related CO₂ emissions would stay constant over 2004–2030. These stabilisation levels (if achieved by all other sectors) would cancel about 3°C temperature increase over the projected period of time.     

Assessment of bottom-up sectoral and regional mitigation potentials

The greenhouse gas mitigation potential of different economic sectors in three world regions are estimated using a bottom-up approach. These estimates provide updates of the numbers reported in the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC AR4). This study is part of a larger project aimed at comparing greenhouse gas mitigation potentials from bottom-up and top-down approaches. The sectors included in the analysis are energy supply, transport, industry and the residential and service sector. The mitigation potentials range from 11 to 15 GtCO₂eq. This is 26–38% of the baseline in 2030 and 47–68% relative to the year 2000. Potential savings are estimated for different cost levels. The total potential at negative costs is estimated at 5–8% relative to the baseline, with the largest share in the residential and service sector and the highest reduction percentage for the transport and industry sectors. These (negative) costs include investment, operation and maintenance and fuel costs and revenues at moderate discount rates of 3–10%. At costs below 100 US$/tCO₂, the largest potential reductions in absolute terms are estimated in the energy supply sector, while the transport sector has the lowest reduction potential.     

Applying bottom-up analysis to identify the system boundaries of non-energy use data in international energy statistics

Data on the non-energy use of fossil fuels in energy statistics are subject to major uncertainties. We apply a simple bottom-up methodology to recalculate non-energy use for the entire world and for the 50 countries with the highest consumption of fossil fuels for non-energy purposes. We quantify worldwide non-energy use in the year 2000 to be 24±2 exajoules (EJ), thereby accounting for 6% of the global total primary energy supply (TPES). Our bottom-up estimates are in line with data from international energy statistics for the entire world and for 14 individual countries. Our estimates exceed official non-energy use data for 22 countries, whereas they are lower than official data in the case of 14 countries. Inconsistent system boundaries of non-energy use data in international energy statistics can explain parts of the observed deviations. We regard our bottom-up methodology as reliable albeit being attached with uncertainties. We recommend its use for energy statisticians and greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory makers to generate a shortlist of countries, for which efforts should be made to clarify and improve the quality of non-energy use data in national and international energy statistics.     

Linking historic developments and future scenarios of industrial energy use in the Netherlands between 1993 and 2040

Monitoring energy efficiency improvements is essential for policy evaluation and for future policy making. We estimate the annual energy efficiency improvements achieved in six Dutch industry sectors between 1993 and 2008 by using a bottom-up model. This model incorporates the production data and specific energy consumption values of 122 products. We estimate annual energy efficiency improvements of 1.0 % per annum (p.a.) for the total industry (excluding non-energy use); even though the results are subject to uncertainties due to errors in the energy statistics, we consider them as strong indication that Dutch industry needs to reinforce its efforts in energy efficiency. Based on historical achievements between 1989 and 2008, Business as Usual (BaU) scenarios project annual improvement potentials of 0.6–1.8 % p.a. until 2040. Based on literature review, this study estimates that implementing energy saving technologies can accelerate energy efficiency improvements to 2 % p.a. and beyond. Efficient combined heat and power technologies could increase these potentials further. These are beyond the historical achievements and BaU scenario projections. New policies will be required for technology development which ensures continuous energy efficiency improvements. The findings of this paper need to be extended by continuous monitoring and more scenario analyses with improved data.     

Allocation of energy resources for power generation in India: Business as usual and energy efficiency

This paper deals with MARKAL allocations for various energy sources, in India, for Business As Usual (BAU) scenario and for the case of exploitation of energy saving potential in various sectors of economy. In the BAU scenario, the electrical energy requirement will raise up to 5000 bKwh units per year or 752 GW of installed capacity with major consumers being in the industry, domestic and service sectors. This demand can be met by a mix of coal, hydro, nuclear and wind technologies. Other reneawbles i.e. solar and biomass will start contributing from the year 2040 onwards. By full exploitation of energy saving potential, the annual electrical energy demand gets reduced to 3061 bKwh (or 458 GW), a reduction of 38.9%.The green house gas emissions reduce correspondingly. In this scenario, market allocations for coal, gas and large hydro become stagnant after the year 2015.     

Method for calculating annual energy efficiency improvement of TV sets

The popularization of 24 h pay-TV, interactive video games, web-TV, VCD and DVD are poised to have a large impact on overall TV electricity consumption in the Malaysia. Following this increased consumption, energy efficiency standard present a highly effective measure for decreasing electricity consumption in the residential sector. The main problem in setting energy efficiency standard is identifying annual efficiency improvement, due to the lack of time series statistical data available in developing countries. This study attempts to present a method of calculating annual energy efficiency improvement for TV set, which can be used for implementing energy efficiency standard for TV sets in Malaysia and other developing countries. Although the presented result is only an approximation, definitely it is one of the ways of accomplishing energy standard. Furthermore, the method can be used for other appliances without any major modification.     

The Triptych approach revisited: A staged sectoral approach for climate mitigation

The Triptych approach is a method for allocating future greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions among countries under a post-2012 international climate mitigation regime based on technological criteria at the sector level, and accounting for structural differences. The emission allowances are decomposed according to sectors, thereby enabling the link to real-world emission reduction strategies to be more concrete. The new Triptych approach presented here is a refinement of an earlier version in terms of an increased transparency and allowing a delayed participation for developing countries (initial participation of developing countries with incentives but no penalties through ‘no lose’ targets or sustainable development policies and measures). For this article we calculated the emission reductions for countries for two technology-oriented scenarios, which stabilize GHG concentrations at 450 and 550 ppm CO₂-eq, respectively. The reductions are ambitious, but nonetheless compatible with existing technical reduction potentials as growth is allowed but efficiency has to be improved.     

Potential wind power generation in South Egypt

Egypt is one of the developing countries. The production of electricity in Egypt is basically on petroleum, natural gas, hydro-power and wind energy. The objective of this work to prove the availability of sufficient wind potential in the wide area of deep south Egypt for the operation of wind turbines there. Nevertheless, it gives in general an approximate profile which is useful to the wind parks design for this area. The data used in the calculation are published and analyzed for the first time. The diagrams of the measured wind data for three meteorological stations over a period of two years (wind speed, frequency, direction), wind shear coefficient, the mean monthly and annual wind speed profile for every location are presented. Monthly Weibull parameters, standard deviation and coefficient of variation have been statistically discussed. A comparison of the rose diagrams shows that the wind speed is more persistent and blow over this region of Egypt in two main sectors N and NNW with long duration of frequencies from 67% to 87% over the year with an average wind speed in the range 6.8-7.9 m/s at the three stations. Evaluation of monthly wind energy density at 10 m height by two different methods was carried out. And the final diagram for every site shows no significant difference between them. The annual natural wind energies at 70 m A.G.L. lie between 333 and 377 W/m² for Dakhla South and Kharga stations, respectively, which is similar to the inland wind potential of Vindeby (Denmark) and some European countries. These results indicate that Kharga and Dakhla South locations are new explored sites for future wind power generation projects.     

Cost‐effectiveness analysis of energy efficiency measures in the Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industry

Energy efficiency improvement is an effective way of reducing energy demand and CO₂ emissions. Although the overall final energy savings potential in chemical industry has been estimated in a few countries, energy efficiency potentials by concrete measures applicable in the sector have been scarcely explored and their associated costs are hardly analyzed. In Switzerland, the production of chemicals and pharmaceuticals exceeds all other industrial sectors in terms of energy use and CO₂ emissions, and it accounted for 22% of the total industry's overall final energy demand and 25% of the CO₂ emissions related to non‐renewable energy sources in 2016. In this study, the economic potentials for energy efficiency improvement and CO₂ emissions reduction in the Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industry are investigated in the form of energy efficiency cost curves. The economic potential for final energy savings and CO₂ abatement based on energy‐relevant investments is estimated at 15% and 22% of the sector's final energy use and fossil fuel‐related CO₂ emissions in 2016, respectively. Measures related to process heat integration are expected to play a key role for final energy savings. The economic electricity savings potential by improving motor systems is estimated at 15% of the electricity demand by these systems in 2016. The size of economic potential of energy efficiency improvement across the sector decreases from 15% to 11% for 0.5 times lower final energy prices while the size increases insignificantly for 1.5 times higher final energy prices. The additional power generation potential based on Combined Heat and Power plants is estimated at 14 MW for 2016. This study is a contribution to the so far limited international literature on economic energy efficiency measures applicable in this heterogeneous sector and can support policy development. The results for specific costs of energy efficiency measures can also be adapted to other parts of the world by making suitable adjustments which in return may provide useful insights for decision makers to invest in economically viable clean energy solutions.     

Effects of energy conservation in major energy-intensive industrial sectors on emissions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in China

China has set an ambitious target of increasing energy efficiency by 20% and reducing pollution discharges by 10% over the period 2006–2010. Promoting advanced technologies and closing outdated facilities are widely recognized as important measures to achieve these targets. These actions can also indirectly decrease release of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs). The objectives of this paper are to identify and quantify reductions of PCDD/F emissions to air due to measures such as phasing out of obsolete facilities in the four most energy-intensive industrial sectors. Reductions in PCDD/F emissions from power generation were estimated to be 7, 33 and 38 g I-TEQ in 2006, 2007 and 2008, respectively. For the cement industry, reductions were estimated to be 680 g I-TEQ between 2007 and 2008, and 740 g I-TEQ between 2009 and 2010. For the iron and steel industry, the reduction was estimated to be 113.3 g I-TEQ over the period 2007–2010, which includes 76.6 g I-TEQ in 2007. For the coke industry, the reduction was estimated to be 68 g I-TEQ in 2007 and 62 g I-TEQ in 2008.     

International comparison of energy efficiency of fossil power generation

The purpose of this study is to compare the energy efficiency of fossil-fired power generation for Australia, China, France, Germany, India, Japan, Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Norway aggregated), South Korea, United Kingdom and Ireland, and United States. Together these countries generate 65% of worldwide fossil power generation. Separate benchmark indicators are calculated for the energy efficiency of natural gas, oil and coal-fired power generation, based on weighted-average energy efficiencies. These indicators are aggregated to an overall benchmark for fossil-fired power generation. The weighted average efficiencies are 35% for coal, 45% for natural gas and 38% for oil-fired power generation.     

Understanding industrial energy use: Physical energy intensity changes in Indian manufacturing sector

This study develops and examines physical energy intensity indicators in five industrial sub-sectors—iron and steel, aluminum, textiles, paper, and cement—and investigates mitigation options for energy related CO₂ emissions (during 1991–2005). Decomposition analysis has been employed to separate the structural effect (share of different products in the sector) from pure intensity effect (efficiency increase through technical improvement) for each industry. The results show that the combined effect (considering both structural and intensity effects together) on both iron and steel and paper and pulp industries is negative while it is positive for aluminum and textiles. The intensity effect for all the industries, barring textiles, is negative showing improvement in energy efficiency; iron and steel in particular, has seen a decrease of 134 PJ in energy consumption owing to improvements in efficiency. However, energy intensity in textiles has risen by 47 PJ due to increased mechanization. Structural effect is positive in aluminum and iron and steel industries indicating a movement towards higher energy-intensive products. In the case of aluminum, positive structural effect dominates over negative intensive effect whereas negative intensive effect dominates iron and steel industry. The paper helps in designing policies for improving productivity and reduce energy consumption in India's manufacturing sector.     

Global energy efficiency improvement in the long term: a demand- and supply-side perspective

This study assessed technical potentials for energy efficiency improvement in 2050 in a global context. The reference scenario is based on the World Energy Outlook of the International Energy Agency 2007 edition and assumptions regarding gross domestic product developments after 2030. In the reference scenario, worldwide final energy demand almost doubles from 293 EJ in 2005 to 571 EJ in 2050 and primary energy supply increases from 439 EJ in 2005 to 867 EJ in 2050 (excluding non-energy use). It is estimated that, by exploiting the technical potential for energy efficiency improvement in energy demand sectors, this growth can be limited to 8% or 317 EJ final energy demand and 473 EJ primary energy supply in 2050. This corresponds to a potential for demand-side energy efficiency improvement of 44% in 2050, in comparison to reference energy use. In addition, a potential exists for improving energy efficiency in the transformation sector. In 2005, as much as 33% of primary energy supply is lost in the transformation and distribution of primary energy. It is estimated that this share can be reduced to 19% in 2050 by, e.g. improving energy efficiency of fossil-fired power generation (assuming no changes in the fuel mix for power generation). Including the potential for energy efficiency improvement in energy demand sectors, total primary energy supply would then decrease by 10% from 439 EJ in 2005 to 393 EJ in 2050. This contributes to a total potential for energy efficiency improvement of 55% in 2050 in comparison to reference primary energy supply.     

Energy use and implications for efficiency strategies in global fluid-milk processing industry

The fluid-milk processing industry around the world processes approximately 60% of total raw milk production to create diverse fresh fluid-milk products. This paper reviews energy usage in existing global fluid-milk markets to identify baseline information that allows comparisons of energy performance of individual plants and systems. In this paper, we analyzed energy data compiled through extensive literature reviews on fluid-milk processing across a number of countries and regions. The study has found that the average final energy intensity of individual plants exhibited significant large variations, ranging from 0.2 to 12.6 MJ per kg fluid-milk product across various plants in different countries and regions. In addition, it is observed that while the majority of larger plants tended to exhibit higher energy efficiency, some exceptions existed for smaller plants with higher efficiency. These significant differences have indicated large potential energy-savings opportunities in the sector across many countries. Furthermore, this paper illustrates a positive correlation between implementing energy-monitoring programs and curbing the increasing trend in energy demand per equivalent fluid-milk product over time in the fluid-milk sector, and suggests that developing an energy-benchmarking framework, along with promulgating new policy options should be pursued for improving energy efficiency in global fluid-milk processing industry.     

Effects of climate and energy policy related measures and targets on the future structure of the European energy system in 2020 and beyond

Stabilising the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere at a level of 450 ppm in order to keep global temperature increase below 2 °C requires an ambitious climate policy. This study analyses the role of different technologies in the EU-27 with regard to efficiency improvements, fuel switching and energy saving measures under such a climate policy target. The analysis is carried out using the regionalised Pan-European TIMES energy system model, a technology oriented, linear optimisation model. Thereby limited resources and import potentials of various energy carriers, competition among different sectors and the country-specific differences in energy demand are taken into account. As a result, it turns out that the structure of energy use inside the EU-27 is much stronger, influenced by political targets and positions regarding climate protection, energy security and the use of nuclear energy than by available technologies. In the case of climate protection polices and limited use of nuclear energy, the most important measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases are an increased use of renewables, carbon capture and storage, fuel switching and the intensified application of electricity in the end use sectors. Efficiency improvements play an additional role when security of supply is taken into account.     

Assessment of energy efficiency performance measures in industry and their application for policy

Energy efficiency improvement is a basic yet significant way of addressing both energy security and environment concerns. There are various measures of industrial energy efficiency performance, with different purposes and applications. This paper explores different ways to measure energy efficiency performance (MEEP): absolute energy consumption, energy intensity, diffusion of specific energy-saving technology and thermal efficiency. It discusses their advantages and disadvantages, and roles within policy frameworks. Policy makers should consider the suitability of MEEP based on criteria such as reliability, feasibility and verifiability. The limitations of both energy intensity and necessity of broader all-inclusive indicators and technology diffusion indicators are also discussed. A case study on Japan's iron and steel industry illustrates the critical role of proper boundary definitions for a meaningful assessment of energy efficiency in industry. Depending on the boundaries set for the analysis, the energy consumption per ton of crude steel ranges from 16 to 21 GJ. This paper stresses the importance of a proper understanding of various methods to assess energy efficiency, and the linkage with policy objectives and frameworks. Possible next steps for improvement of MEEP, such as database development, were also discussed.     

Reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions from global dairy processing facilities

Global butter, concentrated milk, and milk powder products use approximately 15% of annual raw milk production. Similar to cheese and fluid milk, dairy processing of these products can be energy intensive. In this paper, we analyzed production and energy data compiled through extensive literature reviews on butter, concentrated milk, milk and whey powder processing across various countries and plants. Magnitudes of national final and primary specific energy consumption (SEC) exhibited large variations across dairy products; in addition, the final SEC of individual plants and products exhibited significant variations within a country and between countries. Furthermore, we quantified national energy intensity indicators (EIIs) accounting for dairy product mixes and technological advancement. The significant variations of SEC and EII values indicate a high degree of likelihood that there is significant potential for energy savings in the global dairy processing industry. Based upon the study samples, we estimate potential energy savings for dairy processing industry in selected countries, and estimates annual reduction of 9–14 million metric-ton carbon-equivalent¹ could be achieved if measures are implemented to lower SEC values by 50–80% in half of global dairy plants. The paper calls for publication of more energy data from the dairy processing industry.