The effect of tracking technique on the quality of user experience for augmented reality mobile navigation

Augmented reality (AR) technology is changing the way we interact with the world by making the journey seamless and interactive. This is done by layering digital enhancements over an existing reality or real life scenario. However, employing AR technologies in wayfinding and navigation does not automatically bring positive experiences. We argue that tracking techniques are important in mobile AR navigation and fundamentally affect the quality of user experience. In this paper, we propose two different tourist AR applications based on different tracking techniques. In addition to the analysis of the applications, we conducted a user evaluation to study the effect of different AR tracking techniques on the performance of users and the quality of user experience.     

A comparative evaluation of the wearable augmented reality-based data presentation interface and traditional methods for data entry tasks

Data entry is a ubiquitous task performed in today's offices. Persistent data entry is linked with high workload and fatigue due to poor ergonomic workplace design and poor posture. This study aims to alleviate data entry operators' workload and improve data entry performance by applying wearable augmented reality (AR) technology to data entry tasks. An AR-based interface was developed and used to present data to the participants, who entered the data in web-based data entry forms. A total of eighteen participants performed data entry tasks to evaluate the AR interface with traditional methods – extra desktop monitor and paper-based data presentation methods. Each method's performance was judged on the task completion time, typing error rate, workload, and usability. The usability and overall perceived workload while using an AR interface for data entry were similar to the traditional way of using paper, despite the additional burden due to the weight of the AR headset. AR interface did not perform better than the extra desktop monitor interface for usability and overall perceived workload. The results from this study can be utilized to design AR devices that are suited for data entry tasks.     

The effects of an augmented reality based magnetic experimental tool on students' knowledge improvement and cognitive load

While the use of experiments is important for developing students' scientific knowledge and skills, challenges may arise when teachers and students are conducting experiments in class, such as non-reusable experimental resources, safety issues and difficulties simulating some specific effects. Augmented reality (AR) technology affords an alternative approach to conducting experiments by bringing students a virtual–real mixed learning environment. In this study, taking junior high school physics knowledge on the magnetic field as an example, we designed and developed an AR-based mobile simulated experiment tool. This study investigates the effect of the AR-based experiment on students' knowledge improvement and cognitive load compared with 3D and traditional experiments. A sample of 122 ninth-grade students was randomly chosen and assigned to three groups (AR, 3D and Traditional). The results demonstrate that students in the AR group performed better than those in the 3D and Traditional groups in terms of their knowledge improvement. The AR group students also experienced the lowest cognitive load among the three groups. Moreover, students had positive perceptions about AR and 3D tools. The implications of this study are discussed.     

A Comparative Study of Two Wayfinding Aids With Simulated Driving Tasks—GPS and a Dual-Scale Exploration Aid

Global Positioning System (GPS) is currently the most often used wayfinding aid for driving. Yet GPS is originally designed to provide a driving guide rather than to help users gain spatial knowledge. Accordingly, GPS might be less usable in situations where spatial knowledge is required. This study experimentally compared two wayfinding aids using simulated driving tasks in a virtual environment: a simulated GPS and a dual-scale exploration aid (DSEA). The DSEA, which provides two levels of details—both detailed and contextual information—was proposed to support participants in finding and selecting routes by themselves. The results show that although DSEA was less helpful in leading participants to their destination and corresponded to more turning errors in simulated driving, it was more useful for the corresponding participants to establish spatial awareness and a cognitive map. The influence of participants' spatial ability test score on wayfinding performance was measured and discussed. The proposed DSEA design and experimental results show some indications for designing new wayfinding aids aimed at reducing wayfinding errors and constructing cognitive maps while still providing easy navigation.     

Scalable WIM: effective exploration in large-scale astrophysical environments

Navigating through large-scale virtual environments such as simulations of the astrophysical Universe is difficult. The huge spatial range of astronomical models and the dominance of empty space make it hard for users to travel across cosmological scales effectively, and the problem of wayfinding further impedes the user's ability to acquire reliable spatial knowledge of astronomical contexts. We introduce a new technique called the scalable world-in-miniature (WIM) map as a unifying interface to facilitate travel and wayfinding in a virtual environment spanning gigantic spatial scales: Power-law spatial scaling enables rapid and accurate transitions among widely separated regions; logarithmically mapped miniature spaces offer a global overview mode when the full context is too large; 3D landmarks represented in the WIM are enhanced by scale, positional, and directional cues to augment spatial context awareness; a series of navigation models are incorporated into the scalable WIM to improve the performance of travel tasks posed by the unique characteristics of virtual cosmic exploration. The scalable WIM user interface supports an improved physical navigation experience and assists pragmatic cognitive understanding of a visualization context that incorporates the features of large-scale astronomy.     

Exploring the use of handheld AR for outdoor navigation

Recently, mobile-phone based outdoor augmented reality (AR) systems have become readily available. One of the most popular applications are AR browsers that show virtual points of interest (POIs) overlaid on top of the phone's camera view. These virtual cues can be used to guide people to the POIs. However, the usefulness of AR systems for guiding users to POI has not yet been evaluated, especially when compared to map interfaces. In this paper we present results of a user study comparing navigation with information typically provided by currently available handheld AR browsers, to navigation with a digital map, and a combined map and AR condition. We found no overall difference in task completion time, but found evidence that AR browsers are less useful for navigation in some environment conditions. We also found that navigation performance differed significantly with gender for the Map and AR+Map interfaces, but is very similar across gender for the AR interface. Users preferred the combined AR+Map condition, and felt that there were significant problems with using the AR view alone for navigation.     

A comparative study of two wayfinding aids for simulated driving tasks – single-scale and dual-scale GPS aids

Global Positioning System (GPS) is currently the most frequently used wayfinding aid for driving. Yet, GPS is designed to act as a driving guide rather than to help users gain spatial knowledge. Accordingly, GPS might be less usable in situations where such knowledge is required or highly desirable. In this study, we experimentally study the influence of GPS display scales (single-scale vs. dual-scale) using simulated driving tasks in a virtual environment. The single-scale GPS is similar to the regular GPS view. The dual-scale GPS aid is a dual-scale navigation tool that provides two levels of detail, including both detailed and contextual information. The results demonstrate that the dual-scale GPS was more efficient in leading the participants to the destination during the simulated driving and was more useful for the participants to establish spatial awareness and a cognitive map; the dual-scale GPS participants also reported higher subjective evaluations. The proposed dual-scale GPS design and experimental results show some indications for designing new wayfinding aids aimed at increasing wayfinding performance while simultaneously helping users construct a cognitive map.     

Spatial learning in a virtual multilevel building: Evaluating three exocentric view aids

The present study explores how the design of the exocentric view aid affects the acquisition of survey knowledge in virtual environments. The exocentric view was provided by either a 3D floor map, a 3D building map or the elevation of viewpoint in air. Participants navigated a virtual multilevel building and their survey knowledge was measured by the judgment of spatial relative direction. The results showed that (1) the accuracy of spatial judgment along the horizontal direction and response time were improved for participants with the exocentric view aid; (2) the accuracy of spatial judgment along the vertical direction was worst in the condition with a 3D floor map; (3) in general participants with a 3D building map performed best. The data suggested that the large scale of an exocentric view aid and the increased number of exocentric perspective through which the spatial layout is observed can facilitate the acquisition of survey knowledge in a virtual building. Potential applications of the findings include the design of a 3D map for navigation in both real and virtual buildings.     

Impact of monitor-based augmented reality for on-site industrial manual operations

This work evaluates the impact of augmented reality (AR) technology to support operators during manual industrial tasks. The work focuses specifically on monitor-based augmented reality as a solution to provide instructions to the operator. Instructions are superimposed directly onto a video representation of the physical workspace and are displayed on a standard monitor. In contrast to previous AR solutions proposed to support manual tasks, the current work is more industrially acceptable because it meets most of the industrial requirements and it is cost effective for a deployment in an industrial environment. The developed prototype is described and evaluated by means of a user study to compare the monitor-based augmented reality solution to provide instructions and the traditional method. The test shows that AR can be a valid substitute to support the operators during manual tasks because it allows them to be more time efficient and it reduces their mental workload compared to traditional instructional manuals.     

Evaluating an augmented reality interface for sailing navigation: a comparative study with a immersive virtual reality simulator

Sailing navigation is an activity that requires acquiring and processing information from the surrounding environment. The advancement of technology has enabled sailboats to have an increasing number of onboard sensors that make sailing more user-friendly. However, data provided by these sensors are still visualized on 2D digital displays that imitate traditional analog interfaces. Although these displays are strategically placed on the sailboat, the user needs to divert attention from the primary navigation task to look at them, thus spending a significant amount of cognitive resources. AR-based technologies have the potential to overcome these limitations by displaying information registered in the real environment, but there are no studies in the literature for validating the effectiveness of this technology in the field of sailing. Thus, we designed a head-mounted display AR-based interface to assist users in monitoring wind data to avoid user diversion from the primary task of sailing. We conducted a user study involving 45 participants in an Immersive Virtual Reality simulated environment. We collected objective and subjective measures to compare the AR-based interface with a traditional data visualization system. The AR-based interface outperformed the traditional data visualization system regarding reaction time, cognitive load, system usability, and user experience.

     

The effects of augmented reality on improving spatial problem solving for object assembly

The capability of Augmented Reality (AR) technology to track and visualize relations of objects in space has led to diverse industry applications to support complex engineering tasks. Object assembly is one of them. For an AR aid to support Ready-to-Assemble (RTA) furniture particularly, the challenge is to effectively design the visual features and mode of interaction, so that the first-time users can quickly conceive spatial relations of its parts. However, AR developers and engineers do not have sufficient guidelines to achieve such performance-driven goals. The scientific evidence and account of how one could cognitively benefit in object assembly can be useful to guide them. This experimental research developed an Augmented Reality (AR) application on the Microsoft HoloLens™ headset, and tested it on the first-time users of RTA furniture. The controlled experiments and behavioral analyses of fourteen participants in working out the two RTA furniture with different assembly complexity showed that, the application was effective to improve spatial problem-solving abilities. Especially, the positive effects of the AR-based supports stood out against the assembly of higher complexity. The findings have implications for the information design of advanced AR applications to support assembly tasks with high demands of spatial knowledge. In addition, the extensive analyses of the participants’ performance, behaviors, cognitive workload, and subjective responses helped identify usability issues with the Microsoft HoloLens™.     

Cognitive characteristics in firefighter wayfinding Tasks: An Eye-Tracking analysis

During search and rescue, firefighters need to find paths in an unfamiliar space with minimum time and information available. The effective memorization and retrieval of critical spatial information can help reduce risks and increase mission efficiency. Although evidence has shown that different formats of wayfinding information, including landmarks, routes, and surveys, can impact search and rescue performance in different manners, a deeper understanding of the characteristics of firefighters’ cognitive processes related to the varying wayfinding information formats is less explored. To evaluate firefighters’ performance and cognitive characteristics in search and rescue, a firefighter experiment in Virtual Reality (VR) was conducted. Firefighters (n = 40) were recruited to participate in the simulated rescue task. After reviewing the spatial information in different formats, firefighters were requested to find three victims inside a VR maze as quickly as possible. Task performance was evaluated by the number of victims found and the time spent. Firefighters’ gaze patterns were analyzed to evaluate their cognitive status. The result showed that although the cognitive load under the survey and route conditions was significantly higher than under the landmark condition (p < 0.001), the decision-making involved a more effective cognitive process related to choosing the right path at critical waypoints such as where a turning decision must be made. Thus, the perceived workload and fatigue levels of the two conditions were lower, and the wayfinding performance was better. In contrast, with landmark information, the cognitive load levels were consistently high, along with increased mental fatigue.The findings reveal a series of cognitive features related to a more effective spatial decision-making in search and rescue. In the future, it is expected that these cognitive features can be used to develop real-time monitoring and prediction models for wayfinding performance.     

Augmented reality-based robot teleoperation system using RGB-D imaging and attitude teaching device

Augmented reality (AR)-based programming using the demonstration method has been widely studied. However, studies on AR-based programming for remote robots are lacking because of the limitation of human–computer interaction. This paper proposes an AR-based robot teleoperation system and method using RGB-D imaging and an attitude teaching device. By sending the color and depth images of the remote robot environment to the local side, the operators can complete the teleoperation of the robot at the local side. First, the operators select key positions on the motion path of the robot endpoint from color images via a mouse, and the computer calculates the 3D coordinates of these key points in the robot base coordinate system to complete the position teaching process. In the robot attitude teaching process, the AR technology is used to superimpose the virtual robot model onto the color images of the robot teleoperation environment, so as to make the virtual robot endpoint to move along the teaching path. An operator can use the portable attitude teaching device designed in this study to control the robot movement parameters, such as the attitude and motion speed, during the movement of the virtual robot. After the position and attitude teaching processes, the robot movement trajectory can be generated. To make the base coordinate system of the virtual model consistent with that of the physical robot, we propose an online AR registration method, which does not require manually placing the AR registration marker. The proposed AR-based robot teleoperation system can quickly and easily complete robot teleoperation at the local side.     

Augmented reality technology combined with three-dimensional holography to train the mental rotation ability of older adults

A decline in the cognitive ability of mental rotation causes a poor sense of spatial direction and environmental cognitive capacity. Currently, training tasks for the elderly thus affected are still presented in 2D form. However, clinical research indicates that this strategy generates a cognitive load that reduces the interest of the trainees and diminishes the effects of training. In contrast, augmented reality (AR) is a rising solution that effectively reduces cognitive load, improves the sense of spatial direction of the elderly, and helps increase interest in training. We recruited 28 elderly (age ≥ 65 years) for this study. Fourteen were randomly assigned to an active Intervention group and were given AR-based 3D hologram (AR-3DH) mental rotation training, and 14 were assigned to a group that used the traditional 2D model. Both groups took ABA-designed pre-and post-tests that required inferring the rotating shapes' states from standard mental rotation tasks. Change scores for the two groups were compared using error rates and reaction times as covariates. After six-week of training, the mental rotation ability of the Intervention group improved through the use of AR-3DH training system during the intervention phase. The practical and developmental implications of the findings are discussed.     

An augmented reality-based multimedia environment for experimental education

Over the last few years, there has been a growing interest in augmented reality (AR) technology for education. However, current AR education applications are often used as a new type of knowledge display platform, and they cannot fully participate in educational activities to improve educational results. To enable AR technology to participate in educational activities more effectively, according to learning-by-doing theory, we explore the form of a future experimental course and propose a new AR-based multimedia environment for experimental education. The framework of the multimedia environment consists of three components: the AR experiment authoring tool, the AR experiment application, and the management application. In this AR-based multimedia environment, teachers can independently create AR experiments using the what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG) editing method. Students can manipulate the AR-based experimental object to complete the experiment in class. Moreover, teachers can observe students’ experimental behaviour, obtain evaluations in real time, and even guide students remotely. We also present an application case of a chemistry experiment and obtain results of the usability test, demonstrating improvements in AR technology participation in educational activities.

     

Direct hand touchable interactions in augmented reality environments for natural and intuitive user experiences

Several studies have been carried out on augmented reality (AR)-based environments that deal with user interfaces for manipulating and interacting with virtual objects aimed at improving immersive feeling and natural interaction. Most of these studies have utilized AR paddles or AR cubes for interactions. However, these interactions overly constrain the users in their ability to directly manipulate AR objects and are limited in providing natural feeling in the user interface. This paper presents a novel approach to natural and intuitive interactions through a direct hand touchable interface in various AR-based user experiences. It combines markerless augmented reality with a depth camera to effectively detect multiple hand touches in an AR space. Furthermore, to simplify hand touch recognition, the point cloud generated by Kinect is analyzed and filtered out. The proposed approach can easily trigger AR interactions, and allows users to experience more intuitive and natural sensations and provides much control efficiency in diverse AR environments. Furthermore, it can easily solve the occlusion problem of the hand and arm region inherent in conventional AR approaches through the analysis of the extracted point cloud. We present the effectiveness and advantages of the proposed approach by demonstrating several implementation results such as interactive AR car design and touchable AR pamphlet. We also present an analysis of a usability study to compare the proposed approach with other well-known AR interactions.     

Designing multimodal tracks for mobile users in unfamiliar urban environments

While there have been many studies of navigation design guidelines for integrating maps in mobile devices, we argue that the research focus should turn more towards the design of multimodal navigation aids, which would reflect the impact of typical human wayfinding behaviour. Therefore, we suggest an interdisciplinary design approach, i.e. building on urban design practice that focuses on supporting the navigation of pedestrians in urban areas. The design implications are explored in this study with the subjects being pedestrians accomplishing wayfinding tasks in an unfamiliar, urban area. The main areas that this paper contributes to are: investigating the design implications of multimodal navigation aids; evaluating these in the context of mobile wayfinding tasks; and reflecting the results according to the user's wayfinding strategies and spatial anxiety. It is concluded that through designing multimodal tracks into mobile navigation applications we can help users to find their way in unfamiliar, urban environments.     

Experimenting with electromagnetism using augmented reality: Impact on flow student experience and educational effectiveness

Educational researchers have recognized Augmented Reality (AR) as a technology with great potential to impact affective and cognitive learning outcomes. However, very little work has been carried out to substantiate these claims. The purpose of this study was to assess to which extent an AR learning application affects learners' level of enjoyment and learning effectiveness. The study followed an experimental/control group design using the type of the application (AR-based, web-based) as independent variable. 64 high school students were randomly assigned to the experimental or control group to learn the basic principles of electromagnetism. The participants' knowledge acquisition was evaluated by comparing pre- and post-tests. The participants' level overall-state perception on flow was measured with the Flow State Scale and their flow states were monitored throughout the learning activity. Finally, participants' perceptions of benefits and difficulties of using the augmented reality application in this study were qualitatively identified. The results showed that the augmented reality approach was more effective in promoting students' knowledge of electromagnetic concepts and phenomena. The analysis also indicated that the augmented reality application led participants to reach higher flow experience levels than those achieved by users of the web-based application. However, not all the factors seem to have influence on learners' flow state, this study found that they were limited to: concentration, distorted sense of time, sense of control, clearer direct feedback, and autotelic experience. A deeper analysis of the flow process showed that neither of the groups reported being in flow in those tasks that were very easy or too difficult. However, for those tasks that were not perceived as difficult and included visualization clues, the experimental group showed higher levels of flow that the control group. The study suggests that augmented reality can be exploited as an effective learning environment for learning the basic principles of electromagnetism at high school provided that learning designers strike a careful balance between AR support and task difficulty.     

Helping older pedestrians navigate in the city: comparisons of visual,auditory and haptic guidance instructions in a virtual environment

Preserving older pedestrians’ navigation skills in urban environments is a challenge for maintaining their quality of life. However, existing aids do not take into account older people’s perceptual and cognitive declines nor their user experience, and they call upon sensory modalities that are already used during walking. The present study was aimed at comparing different guidance instructions using visual, auditory, and haptic feedback in order to identify the most efficient and best accepted one(s). Sixteen middle-age (non-retired) adults, 21 younger-old (young-retired) adults, and 21 older-old (old-retired) adults performed a navigation task in a virtual environment. The task was performed with visual feedback (directional arrows superimposed on the visual scenes), auditory feedback (sounds in the left/right ear), haptic feedback (vibrotactile information delivered by a wristband), combinations of different types of sensory feedback, or a paper map. The results showed that older people benefited from the sensory guidance instructions, as compared to the paper map. Visual and auditory feedbacks were associated with better performance and user experience than haptic feedback or the paper map, and the benefits were the greatest among the older-old participants, even though the paper-map familiarity was appreciated. Several recommendations for designing pedestrian navigation aids are proposed.