Optimization of the structure of integral skin foams for maximal flexural properties

The effective flexural properties of integral skin foams (ISF), are modeled using Euler-Bernouli beam theory along with a power law empirical equation relating the properties of a homogeneous foam to its density. The optimal density profile that maximizes the effective flexural modulus of an ISF beam of fixed overall density, and with the density constrained to lie in a given range, is continuous when the power law exponent (n) is less than 1. For n > 1, the optimal density profile is discontinuous with a low density core and a high density skin. The effective flexural modulus of such sandwich beams is maximized for a fixed density ratio (ratio of the core density to the skin density) and fixed overall density. The maximal flexural modulus is found to increase monotonically with decreasing density ratios and increasing values of n. The flexural strength of the sandwich beam is also maximized considering failure to occur by tensile fracture or buckling of the skin. In this case an optimal skin thickness and an optimal density ratio are obtained for a fixed overall density. The results are useful for the design and evaluation of flat ISF panels.     

Studies on the flexural modulus of structural foams

An investigation based on I-Beam models was undertaken in this paper for extending knowledge regarding the flexural modulus of structural foam. The applicability of five I-Beams models (I-Beam A, B, C, D and E) including a newly developed one (I-Beam E) were investigated in this work. The square law model was used to predict Young's modulus of uniform density foam, which was subsequently utilized for the calculation of the I-Beam models. I-Beam A, B and E were observed from the configuration analysls of each I-Beam to be the more suitable models for predicting the flexural modulus of the structural foams having either an integral skin or a skin with limited residual bubbles, among which I-Beam E is considered to be better than I-Beam B and A. The comparison of the experimental and theoretical values of the flexural modulus of the structural foams molded with gas counter pressure structural foam (CPSF) and low pressure structural foam (LPSF) molding methods also confirmed that the newly developed I-Beam E is the most adequate model for predicting the flexural modulus of structural foams having either an integral skin or a skin with few residual bubbles. I-Beam B and A were also demonstrated to be in good agreement with the experimental data.Nomenclature B width of I-Beam A, B, C and E - Bc core width of I-Beam A - Bc₁ center core width of I-Beam - Bc₂ half of center core width of I-Beam - C adjustable parameter for density distri-iion of structural foam - CPSF gas counter pressure structural foam injection molding - D thickness of I-Beam in foamed core sec tion or thickness of structural foam in foamed core section - D_s thickness of unfoamed beam - e ratio of skin thickness to half of the thickness of a specimen (reduced skin thickness) - E¹ flexural modulus of structural foam - E_c average Young's modulus for foamed core of structural foam - E_s Young's modulus of unfoamed solid - FLBF flexural load bearing factor - GASF gas assisted structural foam injection molding - HPSF high pressure structural foam injection molding - I_c equivalent moment of inertia of I-Beam - I_s moment of inertia of unfoamed beam - LPSF low pressure structural foam injection molding - R reduced density for center core of structural foam - SCSF sandwich coinjection structural foam molding - T thickness of I-Beam in skin section or skin thickness of structural foam - Y half of the thickness of a specimen - Z dimensionless distance from neutral axis of a specimen subjected to pure bending Greek symbols local density of structural foam - ¹ average density of structural foam - _c average density of foamed core of structural foam - ^f density of uniform density foam - _s density of unfoamed solid     

Flexural properties of moldings of rigid polyurethane made by reaction injection molding

Flexural properties of moldings made by Reaction Injection Molding (RIM), which are structural foams consisting of high density skin and low density core, were investigated by three-point bending tests. Two failure modes were observed in bending tests of the moldings made by RIM, and they are classified as follows according to the density ratio of skin layer to core layer: the opposite side of the skin layer to which load was subjected failed by tensile stress: and the same side of the skin layer to which load was subjected failed by compressive stress, causing wrinkling or buckling. Then the conventional composite beam theory was applied to the former failure mode and Hoff s buckling theory to the latter, and equations were derived to predict the flexural properties of the structural foams, which involved buckling from the flexural properties of solid construction. In addition, it has been shown that there exists a density distribution that maximizes the flexural strength of the moldings made by RIM with a given overall density. The results obtained here should be useful to the optimum structural design of moldings made by RIM.     

Flexural modulus prediction of symmetric structural polymer foams with complex density profiles

In this work, a new phenomenological model is proposed to predict the flexural modulus of symmetric structural foams with complex density distribution across their thickness. The model is based on a generalized Fourier series to represent the density profile and the simple square power-law relation to relate density with modulus. The model predictions are compared with data on polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE) structural foams produced by compression and injection molding. The results show that a very high degree of agreement (less than 3% deviation) can be obtained for these complex structures.     

The effect of a polypropylene skin on the structure and properties of PE/PP dual layer pressure pipe

A new and growing family of polyethylene (PE)‐based pressure pipes have a polypropylene (PP) skin. The effect of the PP skin on the structure and properties of the core PE pipe was investigated by comparing the skinned pipe with an uncoated pipe made from the same PE material and with the same dimensions. The annealing effect introduced by the skin changed the PE core pipe density profile across the wall thickness, increasing density in the PE core pipe near to its outer surface. The density at the bore of the coated and the uncoated pipe was similar. The melting temperature and enthalpy of melting data from DSC agreed with the density profile results. The melting temperature of PE core pipe material close to the PP skin increased with increasing skin thickness. Residual stress assessment indicated that, as the PP skin thickness increased, the PE core pipe had a lower level of overall residual stress in the hoop direction. Long‐term hydrostatic strength (LTHS) tests were carried out and showed a higher strength for the coated pipe than the uncoated one. The observed structural changes have been used to explain the relative strength of these two PE pipes. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2012. © 2011 Society of Plastics Engineers     

PP-MAH对PP/汉麻纤维复合材料结构及性能的影响

研究了PP-MAH对注射成型PP/汉麻纤维(HFs)复合材料的皮－芯层形态结构及力学性能的影响。结果表明,未添加PP-MAH的复合材料体系中,HFs在注塑试样皮层和芯层沿流动方向高度取向。在试样皮层,HFs诱导PP产生 晶。试样皮层呈现韧性断裂行为,而芯层则发生脆性断裂;添加5份（质量份数,下同）PP-MAH后,HFs在注塑试样皮层高度取向,然而在试样芯层HFs呈现无规则分布。与未添加PP-MAH的体系相比,试样皮层中,HFs诱导PP产生 晶能力减弱,复合材料的冲击强度稍有降低,且皮层和芯层试样均呈脆性断裂行为。添加PP-MAH的复合体系拉伸强度和弯曲强度则呈明显提高趋势。     

Mechanical properties of commingled plastic from recycled polyethylene and polystyrene

The mechanical properties of commingled plastic in the form of thick beams prepared by the ET-1 process have been examined in flexure and compression. The mechanical properties were evaluated in relationship to the hierarchical morphology described in a previous study. It was found that the flexural modulus was dominated by the properties of the skin and was satisfactorily modeled by approaches based on the observed micro-morphology, such as the Nielsen and Davis models. It was not necessary to consider the skin–core macromorphology because the flexural modulus was dominated by the void-free skin. The compressive modulus was lower than the flexural modulus and was strongly affected by the skin–core macro-morphology. From the differences between the flexural and compressive moduli, it was determined that the core was essentially nonload-bearing in compression. Flexural fracture initiated on the tension side of the beam and propagated rapidly through the thickness, whereas compressive failure occurred by longitudinal splitting of the skin. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Deflection behaviors of polymer mortar sandwich panels reinforced with GFRP

This study prepared sandwich panel specimens composed of methyl methacrylate (MMA)‐modified polymer mortar at the core and reinforced with high‐tensile GFRP on both faces to propose a method to predict the deflection of polymer mortar sandwich panels under flexural load. Nine experimental specimens of different thickness at the core and face were prepared for the flexural load test to determine the moment‐deflection relationship, and the experimental results were compared with existing theoretical models. The comparison study revealed that the deflection behavior of the specimens in response to the variation in the thickness of the specimens at the core and face could be well predicted. Additionally, an analytical model, which revised a bilinear method, to explain the tension stiffening effect of the prepared sandwich panel specimens under the influence of flexural load is proposed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

Effect of melt temperature and skin‐core morphology on the mechanical performance of nylon 6

The crystalline texture and mechanical (tensile and flexural) properties of injection molded nylon 6 were evaluated to understand the influence of the melt temperature (T_mlt), one of the key‐processing variables. The mechanical properties are found to be sensitive to T_mlt only below ～ 250°C. Rapid quenching of the surface produces a skin with lower crystallinity than the core, which cools more slowly; because of this difference in the rate of cooling, the crystalline component in the skin is rich in γ and that in the core is rich in α. The thickness of this skin decreases from about 1.25 mm to 0.75 mm as T_mlt increases from 225°C to 310°C. Higher tensile strength at yield, lower elongation at break and higher flexural strength were observed in specimens molded at lower T_mlt. These characteristics are associated with thicker and less ordered skin, and a lower crystallinity core. The role of the T_mlt, on microstructure and mechanical properties of injection molded nylon 6, the development of skin‐core morphology, and the role of the residual stresses in the core are discussed.     

Coextruded polyethylene and wood‐flour composite: Effect of shell thickness,wood loading,and core quality

Coextruded recycled polyethylene and wood‐flour composites with core–shell structure were manufactured using a pilot‐scale coextrusion line. The influence of wood loadings and thickness of the shell layer and core quality on mechanical and water absorption properties of the composites were investigated. Core–shell structured profile can significantly improve flexural and impact strengths of composites especially when a relatively weak core was used. However, the coextruded profile with unreinforced shell may have a reduced modulus when a strong core was used. The shell layer also protected coextruded composites from long‐term moisture uptaking, leading to improved dimensional stability compared with the corresponding un‐coextruded controls. When the shell thickness was fixed, less wood loading in the shell layer did not cause obvious flexural modulus and dimension change but improved impact strength and water resistance of the coextruded composites. When wood loading in the shell layer was fixed, increased shell thickness improved impact strength but affected modulus negatively. Thickened shell layer helped reduce water uptaking but did not change dimensional stability of coextruded composites remarkably. Overall enhancement of composite strength was more pronounced for the weaker core system. Thus, the coextrusion technology can be used to achieve acceptable composite properties even with a relatively weak core system—offering an approach to use recycled, low quality plastic‐fiber blends in the core layer. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Failure Behavior of Cellular-Core Ceramic Sandwich Composites

The mechanical behavior of a novel ceramic sandwich composite system was investigated. This system was comprised of a low-density, cellular alumina core bonded to dense alumina faceplates. The flexural strength and elastic properties of the core material alone were measured as a function of relative density. For the sandwich system, failure mechanisms and failure loads for a variety of core densities and face thicknesses were recorded. Initial failure mechanisms were observed to be exclusively core fracture but in a non-catastrophic manner. In order to successfully predict these failure loads with existing theory, Weibull statistics were incorporated into the analysis. This allowed flexural strengths measured independently on the core material to be scaled to those expected from the stress distribution in the sandwich core.     

A simplified model on vertical density profile and shrinkage ratio of virgin and charred medium density fibreboard

This work is part of a wider scope of research on developing comprehensive pyrolysis model for medium density fibreboard (MDF) in fires. A simplified model is developed to predict the vertical density profile of virgin MDF. The model shows that vertical density profile can be reproduced using a second order conic curve. Several sets of experimental data are used to validate the model with promising results that are presented. Further investigation shows that the density difference between surface and core densities tends to maintain constant within a range of 300 to 450 kg/m³. Moreover, the model can predict the mean density with an error less than 30 kg/m³. Typical MDF panels were experimentally charred using thermogravimetric analysis and cone calorimetry to investigate the shrinkage and density of char. The actual char density is measured as 330 kg/m³ with a uniform density distribution along the char layer thickness. A model is developed to predict the shrinkage ratios. The restraining effect caused by surface deformation will lead to different vertical and horizontal shrinkage ratios. The volume reductions at vertical and horizontal directions are experimentally measured as 40% and 20% for the two tested MDF panels, which is comparable with the model predictions. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Injection molding of glass flake reinforced polypropylene: Flake orientation and stiffness

Three samples of silane treated glass flakes of different diameters were dry blended with polypropylene powder and injection molded into rectangular (32 mm × 127 mm) plaques using an edge-gated mold cavity. The thicknesses of plaques were 1.6 mm, 3.2 mm, and 6.4 mm. Tensile and flexural specimens were machined from these plaques. Average flake diameters and thicknesses were determined. It was found that aspect ratios in finished moldings are quite similar, despite the initial (before processing) differences. The flake orientation varies across the thickness; it is parallel to the plane of the molding in the outer skin layer, changing gradually to perpendicular in the core. The relative thickness of the skin where the flake orientation is parallel increases with the decreasing thickness and flake concentration. It represents about 85% of the overall thickness in 1.6 mm moldings, between 70% and 85% when the plaque thickness is 3.2 mm, and between 50% and 60% in the thickest (6.4 mm) molding. Elastic properties can be interpreted using the modified rule of mixtures. Tensile moduli depends strongly on the flake orientation in the core and on the flake concentration, whereas the influence of the core on flexural moduli is insignificant. The flake orientation coefficients determined from micrographs are in good agreement with those calcuated from mechanical test. The coefficient accounting for finite flake aspect ratio, η_L was found to be about 0.3.     

Real‐time diagnosis of co‐injection molding using ultrasound

Co‐injection molding, also known as sandwich molding, is a process in which two or more polymers are laminated together in a mold cavity. Integrated ultrasonic sensors embedded into a mold insert of a co‐injection‐molding machine have been used for real‐time, nonintrusive, and nondestructive diagnosis of co‐injection‐molding processes. Diagnosis of core arrival, core flow speed, part solidification, part detachment from the mold, thickness of skin and core, and core length at the mold was demonstrated. It is found that core flow speed and peak cavity pressure monotonically increased and decreased with the core volume percentage, respectively. Thicknesses of the skin and core of the molded part were estimated using the presented ultrasonic technique during molding with an accuracy better than ±17%. In addition, the core length had correlation with core thickness, core flow speed, and peak cavity pressure. Among them, the core thickness measured by the ultrasonic technique had the better correlation. This technique enables process optimization, the maximum process efficiency, and in‐process quality assurance of the molded parts. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 47:1491–1500, 2007. © 2007 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Co‐injection molding: Effect of processing on material distribution and mechanical properties of a sandwich molded plate

The effect of molding parameters on material distribution and mechanical properties of co‐injection molded plates has been studied using experimental design. The plates were molded with a polyamide 6 (PA 6) as skin and a 20% glass fiber‐reinforced polybutyleneterephtalate (PBTP) as core. Five molding parameters—injection velocity, mold temperature, skin and core temperature, and core content—were varied in two levels. The statistical analysis of the results showed that three parameters—Injection velocity, core temperature, and core content—were the most significant in affecting skin/core distribution. A high core temperature was the most significant variable promoting a constant core thickness, while core content was the most significant factor influencing a breakthrough of the core. Mechanical properties, such as flexural and impact strength showed a high correlation with the skin/core distribution. The slight increase in falling weight impact strength of the sandwich molded plates, compared to similar plates molded from PBTP only, could be explained from the failure process, which initiates in the brittle core and propagates through the ductile skins.     

Effect of microcellular foaming on the fracture behavior of ABS polymer

In this work, the properties of microcellular ABS were studied. Foamed samples exhibited a solid skin/foamed core structure, with some elongated cells in the flow direction, while spherical cells were mostly observed in the transversal direction. The flexural modulus, flexural strength, and fracture toughness K_Ic decreased with the density. However, the Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) was found to increase with the foaming ratio. The evolution of the mechanical properties and fracture toughness was well described by prediction models considering the skin/core morphology of these microcellular materials. Foaming increased the anisotropic behavior of the material, due to the cell elongation caused by the fountain flow during injection. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43010.     

Numerical simulation and experimental investigation of injection mold filling with melt solidification

A two-phase model is presented for simulating the injection mold filling process including the effect of transient melt solidification, i.e., the phase change effect. The liquid region is governed by Hele-Shaw flow for a non-Newtonian fluid using a modified Cross model to describe viscosity under non-isothermal conditions. Further, the energy equation of the solid phase is dominated by a transient condition. The interfacial energy balance equation is also proposed to predict the solidified layer thickness and temperature profile. Two well-characterized semicrystalline materials, polypropylene and polyethylene, were used in the present work. Good agreement is obtained between the predicted results and experimental observations from this study and the previous literature concerning the thickness of solid layer, the shape of, advancing melt front, and the pressure traces. In particular, the predicted pressure based upon the two-phase model is higher than that in terms of the single-phase model by about 13 percent. Finally, the semicrystalline structure of the frozen skin layer and the central core were investigated with a scanning electron microscope to verify the two-phase model.     

氧化锆陶瓷弯曲强度的尺寸效应

利用流延方法制备不同厚度的氧化锆陶瓷(3YSZ)片状试样,然后经过300℃脱脂,1520℃烧结,分别测试其抗弯强度及烧结密度,发现其抗弯强度与试样的厚度尺寸有关,随着试样的厚度减小,试样的抗弯强度不断增加,其弯曲弹性模量也增大,表明陶瓷材料厚度的减小,有利于试样内部气孔的排除,从而使材料强度得到提高.     

Study on mechanical properties and material distribution of sandwich plaques molded by co‐injection

In the sandwich injection molding process (co‐injection), two different polymer melts are sequentially injected into a mold to form a part with a skin/core structure. Sandwich molding can be used for recycling, improving barrier and electrical properties, or producing parts with tailored mechanical properties. In this study the evaluation of flexural modulus and impact strength of co‐injected plaques have been investigated. Virgin and short glass fiber reinforced (10 and 40%) polypropylene were used in six different combinations of sandwiched layers. The skin and core thicknesses were measured by optical microscopy and used to calculate the theoretical flexural modulus, which was compared to the experimentally measured modulus. Fiber orientation states were also observed by scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) at some specific locations and their effect on mechanical properties discussed. The experimental results indicate that an important improvement in transverse modulus, near the gate, is obtained when the virgin polypropylene (PP) is used as a skin and 40% short glass fiber polypropylene (PP40) as core. When both skin and core are made of PP40, the flexural moduli are slightly higher than conventionally injected PP40. POLYM. COMPOS. 26:265–275, 2005. © 2005 Society of Plastics Engineers.     

Microstructure and fracture behavior of (co)injection‐molded polyamide 6 composites with short glass/carbon fiber hybrid reinforcement

The mechanical and fracture properties of injection molded short glass fiber)/short carbon fiber reinforced polyamide 6 (PA 6) hybrid composites were studied. The short fiber composites of PA 6 glass fiber, carbon fiber, and the hybrid blend were injection molded using a conventional machine whereas the two types of sandwich skin–core hybrids were coinjection molded. The fiber volume fraction for all formulations was fixed at 0.07. The overall composite density, volume, and weight fraction for each formulation was calculated after composite pyrolysis in a furnace at 600°C under nitrogen atmosphere. The tensile, flexural, and single‐edge notch‐bending tests were performed on all formulations. Microstructural characterizations involved the determination of thermal properties, skin–core thickness, and fiber length distributions. The carbon fiber/PA 6 (CF/PA 6) formulation exhibits the highest values for most tests. The sandwich skin‐core hybrid composites exhibit values lower than the CF/PA 6 and hybrid composite blends for the mechanical and fracture tests. The behaviors of all composite formulations are explained in terms of mechanical and fracture properties and its proportion to the composite strength, fiber orientation, interfacial bonding between fibers and matrix, nucleating ability of carbon fibers, and the effects of the skin and core structures. Failure mechanisms of both the matrix and the composites, assessed by fractographic studies in a scanning electron microscope, are discussed. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 97: 957–967, 2005