Formation of Nondendritic Primary Aluminum Phase in Hypoeutectic Alloys in Controlled Diffusion Solidification (CDS): A Hypothesis

Controlled diffusion solidification (CDS) is a novel process wherein specific Al alloys can be cast by mixing two precursor alloys of specific compositions and temperature and subsequently casting the resultant mixture. This process enables a nondendritic morphology of the primary Al phase in the cast samples, which is beneficial in mitigating hot tearing tendencies and enabling castability of dilute Al (wrought) alloys to obtain castings with superior mechanical and performance properties. In this study, a hypothesis is proposed to describe the mechanism of the CDS process, specifically the processes of mixing two precursor alloys and a subsequent solidification process. Al – 4.5 wt pct Cu was used as an example alloy system to propose a hypothesis and to verify the various features in the mechanism of mixing two alloys. Experimental results show that the mixing process naturally causes copious nucleation of one of the alloys mixed and that the turbulence energy during mixing distributes these nuclei uniformly to enable a favorable solidification condition for a nondendritic cast microstructure. It is critical that the alloy with the higher thermal mass (mass and temperature) is mixed into the alloy with lower thermal mass to obtain a valid CDS process and that the reverse will not yield a favorable homogeneous cast sample. Certain critical parameters during the CDS process have also been identified and quantified for a favorable microstructure of the casting.     

机械合金化法在制造ODS、CDS合金中的应用

机械合金化是开发新型材料的手段之一。由机械合金化法制得的氧化物弥散强化（ＯＤＳ）和碳化物弥散强化（ＣＤＳ）合金具有更高的断裂强度和良好的抗氧化能力。本文介绍了ＯＤＳ合金和ＣＤＳ合金的制造方法及其力学性能。     

Investigation of spherisation in microstructures of aluminium casting alloys for thixoforging process

Thixoforging combined with low superheat casting (LSC) is a promising shaping process for aluminium casting alloys. LSC process is based on rapid solidification of an alloy which cast with low pouring temperature. With this method, a feedstock material is produced with non-dendritic microstructure that ready for spherisation in reheating sequence of further semi-solid process. Al-Si alloys are still castable even at low temperatures due to their excellent fluidities. This study subjects to present spherisation of A356 and A380 alloy billets cast with LSC process that provides appropriate beginning material with relatively high sphericity. Obtained billet parts were reheated for different times at a semi-solid state temperature. Some of these billets were directly quenched for observing the effects of reheating and the others were thixoforged. With sufficient reheating time, deformation of thixoforging process did not significantly affect on the spherical microstructure. Unnecessarily long reheating period caused excessive grain growth. A356 alloy had higher spherisation tendency than A380 alloy under similar process conditions.     

Review of Microstructure Evolution in Hypereutectic Al–Si Alloys and its Effect on Wear Properties

Al–Si alloys with silicon content more than 13 % are termed as hypereutectic alloys. In recent years, these alloys have drawn the attention of researchers due to their ability to replace cast iron parts in the transportation industry. The properties of the hypereutectic alloy are greatly dependent on the morphology, size and distribution of primary silicon crystals in the alloy. Mechanical properties of the hypereutectic Al–Si alloy can be improved by the simultaneous refinement and modification of the primary and eutectic silicon and by controlling the solidification parameters. In this paper, the effect of solidification rate and melt treatment on the evolution of microstructure in hypereutectic Al–Si alloys are reviewed. Different types of primary silicon morphology and the conditions for its nucleation and growth are explained. The paper discusses the effect of refinement/modification treatments on the microstructure and properties of the hypereutectic Al-Si alloy. The importance and effect of processing variables and phosphorus refinement on the silicon morphology and wear properties of the alloy is highlighted.     

高强韧铝合金轮毂的轻量化铸旋新工艺

综述了铸造铝合金的强韧化研究现状和最新进展,介绍了铝合金轮毂的铸旋成形新技术,分析了铸旋工艺在铝合金轮毂轻量化中的作用。分析表明热塑性形变韧化可成为A356合金强韧化的新途径,以此为基础发展的铸旋成形工艺可满足汽车轮毂进一步轻量化的要求。采用铸旋工艺成形的铝合金车轮轮辋部位的各项性能指标比低压铸造车轮有大幅提高,轮辋壁厚也可大幅度减薄,相同规格的车轮,采用铸旋工艺生产可减重5%～15%,实现了产品的高强度、轻量化要求,具有更轻的竞争力。之后重点介绍了铝合金轮毂铸坯热旋压工艺原理、A356合金的可旋性、工艺参数的选择及有限元分析在热旋压工艺设计中的应用,并指出存在的问题和所需做的进一步研究。结果表明铸造A356合金的热旋压可加工窗口较窄,成形温度控制是关键,为了促进铝合金轮毂铸旋工艺的广泛应用与发展,在铸造铝合金的热旋压变形性能、热旋压时金属的变形机理和流动行为,以及热旋工艺数值模拟和参数优化等方面还需要做大量的、深入系统的研究工作。     

A study of the influence of mischmetal additions to ai-7si-0.3mg (lm 25/356) alloy

This article deals with the effect of 0.25-1.5 wt pct mischmetal (MM) addition on the mechanical properties, microstructure, electrical conductivity, and fracture behavior of cast Al-7Si-0.3Mg (LM 25/356) alloy. Modification of eutectic silicon by MM is compared with strontium modification in terms of microstructure, mechanical properties, and fading behavior. Loss of magnesium encountered on holding the molten alloy and its resultant effect on mechanical properties of alloys modified with MM and Sr are compared with those in the unmodified alloy.     

A process model for the microstructure evolution in ductile cast iron: Part I. the model

In the present investigation, the multiple phase changes occurring during solidification and subsequent cooling of near-eutectic ductile cast iron have been modeled using the internal state variable approach. According to this formalism, the microstructure evolution is captured mathematically in terms of differential variation of the primary state variables with time for each of the relevant mechanisms. Separate response equations have then been developed to convert the current values of the state variables into equivalent volume fractions of constituent phases utilizing the constraints provided by the phase diagram. The results may conveniently be represented in the form of C curves and process diagrams to illuminate how changes in alloy composition, graphite nucleation potential, and thermal program affect the microstructure evolution at various stages of the process. The model can readily be implemented in a dedicated numerical code for the thermal field in real castings and used as a guiding tool in design of new treatment alloys for ductile cast irons. An illustration of this is given in an accompanying article (Part II).     

Microstructure and Corrosion Characterization of Squeeze Cast AM50 Magnesium Alloys

Squeeze casting of magnesium alloys potentially can be used in lightweight chassis components such as control arms and knuckles. This study documents the microstructural analysis and corrosion behavior of AM50 alloys squeeze cast at different pressures between 40 and 120 MPa and compares them with high-pressure die cast (HPDC) AM50 alloy castings and an AM50 squeeze cast prototype control arm. Although the corrosion rates of the squeeze cast samples are slightly higher than those observed for the HPDC AM50 alloy, the former does produce virtually porosity-free castings that are required for structural applications like control arms and wheels. This outcome is extremely encouraging as it provides an opportunity for additional alloy and process development by squeeze casting that has remained relatively unexplored for magnesium alloys compared with aluminum. Among the microstructural parameters analyzed, it seems that the β-phase interfacial area, indicating a greater degree of β network, leads to a lower corrosion rate. Weight loss was the better method for determining corrosion behavior in these alloys that contain a large fraction of second phase, which can cause perturbations to an overall uniform surface corrosion behavior.     

The fatigue and fracture resistance of a Nb-Cr-Ti-Al alloy

The microstructure, fatigue, and fracture behaviors of a cast and heat-treated Nb-Cr-Ti-Al alloy were investigated. The microstructure of the cast alloy was manipulated by annealing at a temperature ranging from 500 °C to 1500 °C for 1 to 24 hours. The heat treatment produced Cr₂Nb precipitates along grain boundaries in all cases except in the 500 °C heat-treated material. Fracture toughness tests indicated low fracture resistance in both the as-cast and heat-treated materials. Fatigue crack growth tests performed on the 500 °C heat-treated material also indicated a low fatigue crack growth resistance. Direct observations of the near-tip region revealed a cleavage-dominated fracture process, in accordance with fractographic evidence. The fracture behavior of the Nb-Cr-Ti-Al alloy was compared to that of other Nb-Cr-Ti alloys. In addition, theoretical calculations of both the unstable stacking energy (USE) and Peierls-Nabarro (P-N) barrier energy are used to elucidate the role of Al additions in cleavage fracture of the Nb-Cr-Ti-Al alloy. The results indicate that an Al alloying addition increases the USE, which, in turn, prevents the emission of dislocations, promotes the nucleation and propagation of cleavage cracks from the crack tip, and leads to a reduction in the fracture toughness.     

Enhancement of wear and corrosion resistance of cast A356 aluminium alloy using friction stir processing

The present work pertains to investigation carried out on the feasibility of locally modifying the surface properties of cast aluminium alloy A356 using friction stir processing (FSP). The friction stir processed zone was characterized by metallography, electron micro probe analysis, hardness, dry sliding wear and potentio dynamic polarization testing. Hardness mapping showed that stir zones experienced increase of 40% compared to the as-cast metal. Further uniform micro-hardness was observed in the friction stir processed zone, which was not the case with as-cast A356 aluminum alloy. The FSP of cast A356 alloy exhibited excellent wear resistance, which is attributed to break-up of the coarse silicon rich eutectic particles, dendrite structure and homogenous distribution of fine Si particulates throughout the α-Al matrix due to intense plastic deformation and mixing during friction stir processing. The friction stir processed zone was also found to have adequate corrosion resistance. This work demonstrates that friction stir processing is an effective strategy for enhancement of wear and pitting corrosion resistance of as cast aluminum alloys     

Creep-Fatigue Cracking Near the Welded Interface in Friction Welding Dissimilar Superalloys INCONEL 718 and MAR-M247

A forged INCONEL 718 and a cast MAR-M247 alloy were joined by a friction welding process. The creep-fatigue strength of this joint was investigated. The life of the joint was significantly shorter than that of the base alloys. The joint failed near the interface of the INCONEL 718 side, although the life of INCONEL 718 was longer than that of MAR-M247. To understand this behavior, the stress field in the welding was numerically analyzed using a visco-elastic model. The results suggested that triaxiality in the stress state could be promoted near the welded interface and lead to an acceleration of creep-fatigue crack nucleation.     

Dendritic growth of undercooled nickel-tin: Part II

High-speed optical temperature measurements were made of the solidification behavior of levitated metal samples within a transparent glass medium. Two undercooled Ni-Sn alloys were examined, one a hypoeutectic alloy and the other of eutectic composition. Recalescence times for the 9 mm diameter samples studied decreased with increasing undercooling from the order of 1.0 second at 50 K under-cooling to less than 10⁻³ second for undercoolings greater than 200 K. Both alloys recalesced smoothly to a maximum recalescence temperature at which the solid was at or near its equilibrium composition and equilibrium weight fraction. For the samples of hypoeutectic alloy that recalesced above the eutectic temperature, a second nucleation event occurred on cooling to the eutectic temperature. For samples which recalesced only to the eutectic temperature, no subsequent nucleation event was observed on cooling. It is inferred in this latter case that both the α and β phases were present at the end of recalescence. The thermal data obtained suggest a solidification model involving (1) dendrites of very fine structure growing into the melt at temperatures near the bulk undercooling temperature, (2) thickening of dendrite arms with rapid recalescence, and (3) continued, much slower recalescence accompanying dendrite ripening.     

Precipitation at grain boundaries in the commercial alloy Al 7075

Grain boundary precipitation in a commercial alloy 7075 Al has been studied using transmission electron microscopy. The crystallography of the precipitates and the matrix is characterized in terms of the misorientation between the grains and the orientation of the grain boundary. The only particles observed at both low and high angle boundaries were precipitates of the equilibrium η phase. Precipitation tends to occur by the establishment of a crystallographic orientation relationship with respect to one grain. A single variant is normally found at a boundary at which copious precipitation occurs; this is frequently the case at low angle boundaries. The grain boundary orientation plays the decisive role on the nucleation of the precipitates. Whenever the boundary plane is close to the habit plane of particular variant, copious nucleation of that variant occurs. The grain boundary orientation also plays an important role in precipitate growth through its influence on the mobility of the nucleus-matrix interface, which strongly depends on the orientation of the interface.     

Criteria for Fracture Initiation at Hydrides in Zirconium-2.5 Pct Niobium Alloy

In many ductile commercial alloys, fracture is initiated at second phase particles. In this work, the initiation process in Zr-2.5 pct Nb pressure tube alloy is examined. In particular, the conditions for fracture of a hydride platelet in a zirconium matrix are sought, by testing tensile specimens containing hydrides oriented with the normals of the platelet parallel to the tensile axis. Acoustic emission is monitored to signal the fracture event. It is concluded that some plastic deformation must precede hydride fracture and that fracture is encouraged by a triaxial stress state. The fracture mechanism appears to be one of slip-induced crack nucleation in the hydrides with the critical event being the growth of this crack to a critical size. Formerly on leave with the Materials Research Laboratory, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912     

Comparison of nucleation and growth mechanisms in alloy solidification to those in metallic glass crystallisation — relevance to modeling

The development of microstructure during phase transformations is often best understood by considerations of nucleation in the parent material followed by growth of the new phase. This is a mature research field in alloy solidification, thanks to extensive investigations of nucleation and dendritic growth in cooling alloy melts. Bulk metallic glasses, on the other hand, typically do not form crystals on cooling from above the liquidus to below the glass transition temperature, resulting in very strong hard materials. As BMG toughness can be enhanced by a crystallising anneal, the study of nucleation and growth of crystals in viscous multi-component liquids has become an important topic for study. Such devitrification can lead to crystalline-glass composites or bulk nano-crystalline alloys, and the micro- or nano-structure is controlled by phenomena such as diffusion of solute and heat, and impingement dynamics. The relevance of solidification theories of nucleation, growth and impingement to crystallisation in amorphous alloys is discussed in this paper. The effects of the key differences between phase transformations in alloy casting processes and those in alloy devitrification on development of computational models for process simulation are highlighted.     

Modeling of Microporosity Size Distribution in Aluminum Alloy A356

Porosity is one of the most common defects to degrade the mechanical properties of aluminum alloys. Prediction of pore size, therefore, is critical to optimize the quality of castings. Moreover, to the design engineer, knowledge of the inherent pore population in a casting is essential to avoid potential fatigue failure of the component. In this work, the size distribution of the porosity was modeled based on the assumptions that the hydrogen pores are nucleated heterogeneously and that the nucleation site distribution is a Gaussian function of hydrogen supersaturation in the melt. The pore growth is simulated as a hydrogen-diffusion-controlled process, which is driven by the hydrogen concentration gradient at the pore liquid interface. Directionally solidified A356 (Al-7Si-0.3Mg) alloy castings were used to evaluate the predictive capability of the proposed model. The cast pore volume fraction and size distributions were measured using X-ray microtomography (XMT). Comparison of the experimental and simulation results showed that good agreement could be obtained in terms of both porosity fraction and size distribution. The model can effectively evaluate the effect of hydrogen content, heterogeneous pore nucleation population, cooling conditions, and degassing time on microporosity formation.     

Study on Improving Solidification Structure of Rare Earth Al-Si Alloys with Electropulse Acting on Liquid Alloy

Electropulse modification (EPM) process, a new physical field method for improving the solidification structure of metals was introduced.Different from other research, EPM is only acting pulse current on melt under liquid state.The solidification structure of Al-Si alloys, A1-Cu alloys,cast iron and steel can be modified obviously with this method: the solidification structure of ZL101 alloy presented the Na and Sr modification and the mechanical properties were enhanced; a large number of primary silicon appeared in the microstructure of ZL109 alloy; the equiaxed grain zone was expanded and the grains were fined in Al-5.0wt% Cu alloy; the graphitization took place in solidification process of molten cast iron; the grain sizes of solidification structure of T8 steel were reduced significantly and the shape of steel pearlites also changed; the equiaxed grain zone increased to 88% from original untreated 19%, the equiaxed grains were fined and the intercrystalline crack was avoided in concasting billet by continuously treating liquid electrical sheet steel in tundish.Effects of rare earths on casting Al-Si alloys were also summarized.The method of modifying the solidification structure of rare earth Al-Si alloys with EPM in producing the alloys was proposed.     

On the Mechanism of Natural Convection and Equiaxed Structure during Dendritic Solidification Processes

A new technique has been developed to generate dendritic‐equiaxed structures in aluminium alloy casting processes, not only to improve the mechanical properties but also to study the effect of crystal structure on the chemical and physical properties of alloys to be cast. The investigation combined laboratory experimental work, metallographic examination and mathematic modelling. The laboratory experimental work involved different superheats for Al‐4.5%Cu alloy in cast ingots. Measurements of temperature distributions were conducted to verify the solidification model. A metallographic study combined macro and micro structural evolution of cast ingot samples. Two‐dimensional mathematical models of fluid flow and heat transfer were developed to characterise the natural convection streams and thermal fields. The model predictions were compared to temperature and isotherms measurements where a good agreement was found. The formation of cast structure and columnar, equiaxed transition (CET) and macro segregation phenomena were studied and discussed, based not only on the theories of nucleation but also on the thermal effects in the mushy and liquid zones.