Constructing psychology: Making facts and fables for our times.

Contends, based on a constructionist position on epistemology, that scientific knowledge (and knowledge of all kinds) is a construction of the human mind. Meaning is attributed to sensory data in theoretically guided inventions of "facts." At different times and places, facts invented in one theory become different facts in another. In each generation, psychologists have favored variables that serve loyally within the theoretical boundaries of the scientific wisdom of that time. It is argued that favored variables can blind scientists to other theories and other variables that could compete for favor. What makes theories and facts plausible is examined, and a continuum of persuasion, determined by the contexts of the theorists is proposed. Contemporary research on lead exposure and on parent–child interaction are examined as examples of facts that can become different facts in other theories. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Toward a Psychology of the Scientist.

Reviews the book, Toward a Psychology of the Scientist by Sonja C. Graver (1981). The major themes of this highly condensed 92 page book are that all sciences are philosophic and that psychological research provides insight into how scientists formulate and revise theories. The author further contends that the development of science would be enhanced if all scientists (including psychologists) understood the primary importance of the role of theory, imagination and creativity in experimentation. The scientific model suggested is that progress in science occurs by way of reformulations of arbitrary world views, and that scientific activities would be enhanced if the subjective and psychological, particularly cognitive, aspects were stressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Under what conditions does confirmation seeking obstruct scientific progress?

Greenwald, Pratkanis, Leippe, and Baumgardner (see record 1986-20964-001) proposed two methods to solve the problem of confirmation bias in psychological research: condition seeking and design approach. In the present article it is argued that these methods do not prevent confirmation bias. Moreover, they are incompatible with the aim of simple and powerful theories. It is further asked whether scientists do in fact always use confirmatory strategies when they test hypotheses. Some empirical results show that confirmatory strategies are given up under certain conditions. Finally, it can be shown that such strategies do not necessarily prevent scientific progress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heritability and biological explanation

Modern neuroscientific and genetic technologies have provoked intense disagreement between scientists who envision a future in which biogenetic theories will enrich or even replace psychological theories, and others who consider biogenetic theories exaggerated, dehumanizing, and dangerous. Both sides of the debate about the role of genes and brains in the genesis of human behavior have missed an important point: All human behavior that varies among individuals is partially heritable and correlated with measurable aspects of brains, but the very ubiquity of these findings makes them a poor basis for reformulating scientists' conceptions of human behavior. Materialism requires psychological processes to be physically instantiated, but more crucial for psychology is the occasional empirical discovery of behavioral phenomena that are specific manifestations of low-level biological variables. Heritability and psychobiological association cannot be the basis for establishing whether behavior is genetic or biological, because to do so leads only to the banal tautology that all behavior is ultimately based in the genotype and brain.     

Review of essay: Critical theories of psychological development.

Reviews the book, Critical theories of psychological development, edited by John M. Broughton (see record 1988-98228-000). This is a collection of essays geared toward both rethinking the nature of mainstream academic developmental psychology and providing alternative directions in which future work might move. For those social scientists—psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and historians—interested both in facing the concept of development head on and expanding their own vision of what developmental psychology is and could be, this collection of essays will provide an excellent opportunity to do so. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory.

Reviews the book, The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory by Donald O. Hebb (2002). Although scientists and philosophers had long speculated about the involvement of biological factors in psychological phenomena, it was not until the 20th century and the publication of The organization of behavior in 1949 that Physiological Psychology emerged as an active field of scientific research. The book also served as a launching pad for revolutionary developments in a wide range of other fields. What can be said to have emerged from the publication of this volume in 1949? Hebb had produced the first comprehensive theory about how brain activity might produce various complex psychological phenomena. The field of biopsychology did emerge and the widely held view that psychological functioning was too complex to have its roots in chemistry and physiology of the brain was discredited. His theorizing did stimulate transdisciplinary research. A significant number of biological scientists began to ask questions about the brain that were relevant to the understanding of psychological processes such as learning and memory. It also resulted in a change in the philosophic outlook of behavioural scientists. Models of thinking began to be built out of neurocircuits as scholars adopted a monistic position about mind and brain. Undergraduates and graduate students should be very grateful to Richard Brown and Peter Milner for their efforts in re-publishing this seminal book. The arguments outlined in the book remain just as compelling and transparent as they were 40 years ago. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eating disorders: A call to arms.

Presents an overview of this issue of the American Psychologist. In this issue, four state-of-the-art articles on eating disorders by internationally recognized psychological scientists are presented. These articles were developed with the recognition that research in the psychological sciences constitutes an important key to realizing a pronounced decrease in the death and devastation that eating disorders leave in their wake and with the hope that there will be an increased investment in science that will lead to enlightened and effective treatments for eating disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Rodgers and Rowe (2002).

That a theory fits data is meaningful only if it was plausible that the theory would not fit. S. Roberts and H. Pashler (2000; see record 2000-15248-005) knew of no enduring theories initially supported by good fits alone (good fits, i.e., where it was not clear that the theory could have plausibly failed to fit). J. L. Rodgers and D. C. Rowe (2002; see record 2002-13781-008) claimed to provide 6 examples. Their 3 nonpsychological examples (Kepler, etc.) are instances of good practice: How the theory constrained outcomes was evident, so it was clear that the theory could have plausibly failed to fit. Their 3 psychological examples are flawed in various ways. It remains possible that no examples exist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology and the resurgent space program.

Reviews some of the psychological aspects of the space missions that began with the launching of the space shuttle Columbia in 1981. Among the salient issues discussed are those involving biobehavioral response, human factors, communications, and personal and social adjustment in space. It is argued that psychologists should be concerned with the human aspects of spaceflight. Weightlessness, confinement, high risk, and other spaceflight conditions provide special opportunities for testing theories from virtually all areas of psychology including physiological, perception, cognitive, learning, personality, social, and organizational psychology. It is concluded that as the profession of psychology gains greater understanding of the psychological issues of adaptation to outer space and builds credibility with mission personnel, psychologists will discover new research challenges and will play an increasingly important role in mission planning and in flight operations. (69 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology, research, and social policy.

Contends that although it is important and timely for psychologists to be concerned with the interface between psychological research and social policy, academic and research psychologists may encounter problems in relating or adapting their research to matters of policy. For some researchers, there are few problems because their focus of research has both theoretical and policy relevance (e.g., those exploring the scientific question at hand with relevant populations or in policy-connected settings). However, it is suggested that the larger group of behavioral scientists are engaged in research that is more removed from immediate practicality or policy relatedness. It is argued that the ideal solution is not to promote the wholesale conversion of research scientists to redirect their scientific inquiry so that it deals directly with issues of policy. Rather, suggestions are tendered for the melding of policy concerns into research that maintains its relevance to the discipline and to issues of psychological theory or practice while touching also on issues of relevance to social policy. A classification model of social scientists involved with policy is included. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Science and the Profession of Psychology in the Area of Family Relations and Marriage Counseling.

In spite of the fact that it has been well demonstrated that marriage and family relations can be studied scientifically, psychology as a science and psychology as a profession have been relatively apathetic toward this area of human behavior. It is the belief of the author that the tendency for psychology to ignore this important area of life should be reversed. It is contended that psychology should become a recognized leader, perhaps the recognized leader, among the several disciplines dealing with marriage and family relations. In view of the urgency to act and the importance of taking many facts into consideration, the author recommends that Division 12 take appropriate action. The fact that the issue is complex and that efforts to face it may be difficult should not prevent organized psychology from meeting the challenge forced upon it by exigencies of the times. In no area of human behavior is there a greater need, and for no effort on the part of scientists (unless it be the prevention of war itself) will there be greater appreciation than will be accorded to those who contribute toward creating and maintaining happy families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of the Sugar Pill by Industrial Psychologists.

Argues that it is necessary, for the good of industrial psychology, that the Barnum Effect be discredited as a method for the validation of psychological tests. as a method for the validation of psychological tests. Businessmen, as they become aware of its nature and obvious limitations, should demand sophisticated methods of test validation. In order to avoid ills resulting from the "quick cure," businessmen should, at the same time, exercise a degree of patience in their demand for the services of psychologists. It should be up to businessmen to seek objective validity which goes far beyond mere anecdotal accounts. Decisions based on psychological tests should be delayed until good evidence of the tests' validity is presented. At the same time, it is the ethical duty of industrial psychologists to resist the temptation to use tests which have not been properly validated. It is their duty to educate the persons for whom they perform services; further, it is their duty to create and maintain an atmosphere conducive to test research and validation. In many cases, they will need to "unsell" more persons on testing than they will be called upon to sell, and they will need to caution their clients concerning the many qualifications to be attached to test interpretations. methods of appropriate psychological test validation. By demanding a high level of competency from industrial and consulting psychologists, American business will render unprofitable the currently widespread use of questionable and often misguided psychological test appraisals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measurement of thrombus formation on intravascular catheters

War is a complex social situation due to the interplay of multiple factors. Economical and political ones are of utmost importance, but human attitudes and motivations must be also taken into account. Being desirable to modify human transactions in such a way that they do not interfere with the basic right of everyone to a condition of physical and mental well-being, war must be abolished. The author contends that an understanding of behaviour through Psychology can be helpful in that aim. Aggression is considered the principal psychological cause of war. It is worth while to differentiate between aggression as an instrument for attaining a special end, and as pure hostility. Only in the first form, it is held here, does it play an important role in war. Psychogists must deal also with a wide range of states of mind that can be "served" by aggression: feelings of inferiority or insecurity, fear, greed, projections, compensations, rationalizations, etc. Scientific approach is not the only one Physiology brings to war prevention. It is equally important the wide dissemination of its conclusions among the general public. Information on the dynamics that prompt people to decide war would make it easier to control. This applies not only to political or military leaders, but also to civil populations. Concerning those two possible contributions of psychologists, scientific and educative, it is suggested the extensive use of psychodramatic techniques. Their richness lie in the lifelike experiences they convey to the participants, and particular aptitude to promote changes of attitudes. Investigation and information on the psychological processes related to war should be undertaken by international organizations of social scientists, acting simultaneously in several countries. Some of the initial steps they could further: 1) that prevention of war be a current subject matter in psychological courses; 2) that the World Health Organization take interest in this subject; 3) that psychologists participate in international political and economical bodies in order to clarify the psychological factors leading to war.     

Alternative images of the citizen: Implications for public policy.

Argues that in attempting to understand socially significant political issues and problems, political scientists and other policy makers have made heavy use of psychological models of the citizen. It is argued that instead of drawing such models from psychology, their efforts have utilized the psychological models of the citizen suggested by economic theory. As a result, the potential effects of citizens' concerns with distributive and procedural fairness—factors typically excluded from economic theories—have been ignored in studying citizens' political evaluations and behaviors. Evidence is given to show (1) that political evaluations and behaviors are influenced by justice-based concerns and (2) the need to broaden the image of the psychology of the citizen to include the influence of citizens' concerns about fairness. (93 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond Aristotle and Galileo: Toward a contextualized psychology of persons.

Psychologists of my generation will recognize the implicit reference in my title immediately: to Kurt Lewin's (1931) classic paper that introduced most of us to the excitement of his ideas when we read it as the initial chapter of A Dynamic Theory of Personality (Lewin, 1935). When Lewin wrote about "The Conflict Between Aristotelian and Galilean Modes of Thought in Contemporary Psychology" over a half a century ago, it was indeed a breath of fresh air. Along with a very few other books and papers, it stands out saliently in my memory as having had a large part in forming my enduring perspective in psychology. It surely played a similar role for many others, by no means just Lewinians. We cannot readily recall its content since we've absorbed it, and built it into the fabric of our thought. I turn back to Lewin's essay because it represents the psysicalist tradition in psychological theory at its best, free of many faults that tainted the behavioristic expressions of positivism. All the same, the hermeneutic and contextualist critique of positivism should leave us dissatisfied with Lewin's version of a Galilean strategy for psychology. In one respect, thus, I am using this occasion for my own "me-too" endorsement of post-positivist theorizing. My second concern here is to focus attention on the need for a culturally and historically contextualized approach in personality theory. Finally, this occasion lets me talk some sense about post-positivist perspectives in psychology. As usual, the conceptual innovators have not been very reasonable. If a contextualized psychology of persons is to be advanced, we need a more plausible version of contextualism than is being argued by the leading polemicists. This is also an effort, therefore, to domesticate a contextualized approach, to accommodate it to its prospective role of defining a new mainstream of theorizing at the softer, more human end of the psychological spectrum. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children and adults as intuitive scientists.

The metaphor of children and lay adults as intuitive scientists has gained wide acceptance. Although useful in one sense, pertaining to scientific understanding, in another, pertaining to the process of scientific thinking, the metaphor may be fundamentally misleading. Research is reviewed indicating that processes of scientific thinking differ significantly in children, lay adults, and scientists. Hence, it is the instruments of scientific thinking, not just the products, that undergo "strong restructuring" (S. Carey; see record 1987-08644-001). A framework for conceptualizing development of scientific thinking processes is proposed, centering on progressive differentiation and coordination of theory and evidence. This development is metacognitive, as well as strategic. It requires thinking about theories, rather than merely with them, and thinking about evidence, rather than merely being influenced by it, and, hence, reflects the attainment of control over the interaction of theories and evidence in one's own thinking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective influence on judgments and decisions: Moving towards core mechanisms.

This article reviews psychological accounts of affective influence on judgments and decisions and argues that these accounts can be enriched by insights from biopsychology. The authors show how biopsychological research helps (1) reveal the sources of values and feelings; (2) predict when affect will influence attentional, perceptual, memorial, and decision processes; and (3) identify precise mechanisms underlying the interaction between affective and cognitive systems. The authors also propose a specific biopsychological model of affective priming phenomena and show how this model deals with data that are hard to explain with purely psychological accounts. The authors conclude that a multilevel biopsychological perspective will ultimately provide a more constrained and plausible foundation for understanding psychological processes underlying affect, judgment, and decision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)