The fan effect: New results and new theories.

The fan effect (J. R. Anderson, see record 1975-06644-001) has been attributed to interference among competing associations to a concept. Recently, it has been suggested that such effects might be due to multiple mental models (G. A. Radvansky, D. H. Spieler, & R. T. Zacks, see record 1993-16287-001) or suppression of concepts (M. C. Anderson & B. A. Spellman, see record 1995-16174-001); A. R. A. Conway & R. W. Engle, see record 1994-08314-001). It was found that the Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational (ACT-R) theory, which embodies associative interference, is consistent with the results of G. A. Radvansky et-al. and that there is no evidence for concept suppression in a new fan experiment. The ACT-R model provides good quantitative fits to the results, as shown in a variety of experiments. The 3 key concepts in these fits are (a) the associative strength between 2 concepts reflects the degree to which one concept predicts the other, (b) foils are rejected by retrieving mismatching facts; and (c) participants can adjust the relative weights they give to various cues in retrieval. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Practice effects and composition: A reply to Anderson.

J. R. Anderson (see record 1989-24857-001) argues that our results (R. A. Carlson et al; see record 1989-24864-001) confirm several predictions of the ACT* account of skill acquisition, including the occurrence of composition. The ACT* theory does include mechanisms that can account for the major ordinal results of our experiment. However, the quantitative implications of the mechanisms that Anderson invokes to support the occurrence of composition result in unreasonable or inconsistent predictions for this data set. These mechanisms do not account for the observed effects in our control experiment, make the composition hypothesis difficult to falsify, and involve assumptions that negate the processing speed advantage that composition would provide. We also discuss several other points made by Anderson. Our results do provide weak support for some aspects of ACT*, while emphasizing the importance of quantitatively examining interrelations among mechanisms in complex models of skill acquisition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of convolution and matrix distributed memory systems for associative recall and recognition.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 92(4) of Psychological Review (see record 2008-10982-001). In this article, there were two erroneous sentences, one on page 284 and one on page 285. The sentences are corrected in the erratum.] Compares 2 closely related distributed memory models in terms of plausibility; arithmetic simplicity; economy of storage space; and ability to account for associative, similarity, and order data in recall and recognition. It is argued that the storage-retrieval system brought about by the convolution-correlation concept outlined by M. A. Eich (see record 1983-04922-001) and B. B. Murdock (see record 1983-04936-001) is neurally implausible, necessitates more complex analyses, and is less economical in storage space than is the matrix memory concept described by J. A. Anderson et al (see record 1978-22353-001). It is shown that the matrix model can easily account for associative symmetry–asymmetry data and for item similarity effects. Means and variances of operating strength for various recall and recognition situations, modeled by the matrix system, are presented, and it is shown how signal-to-noise ratios can be derived. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Pike.

Reports an error in "Comparison of convolution and matrix distributed memory systems for associative recall and recognition" by Ray Pike (Psychological Review, 1984[Jul], Vol 91[3], 281-294). In this article, there were two erroneous sentences, one on page 284 and one on page 285. The sentences are corrected in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1984-27853-001.) Compares 2 closely related distributed memory models in terms of plausibility; arithmetic simplicity; economy of storage space; and ability to account for associative, similarity, and order data in recall and recognition. It is argued that the storage-retrieval system brought about by the convolution-correlation concept outlined by M. A. Eich (see record 1983-04922-001) and B. B. Murdock (see record 1983-04936-001) is neurally implausible, necessitates more complex analyses, and is less economical in storage space than is the matrix memory concept described by J. A. Anderson et al (see record 1978-22353-001). It is shown that the matrix model can easily account for associative symmetry-asymmetry data and for item similarity effects. Means and variances of operating strength for various recall and recognition situations, modeled by the matrix system, are presented, and it is shown how signal-to-noise ratios can be derived. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

List-strength effect: II. Theoretical mechanisms.

R. Ratcliff et al (see record 1990-13916-001) examined the list-strength effect: the effect of strengthening (or weakening) some list items upon memory for other list items. The list-strength effect was missing or negative in recognition, missing or positive in cued recall, and large and positive in free recall. We show that a large number of current models fail to predict these findings. A variant of the SAM model of G. Gillund and R. M. Shiffrin (see record 1984-08340-001), involving a differentiation hypothesis, can handle the data. A variant of MINERVA 2 (D. Hintzman [see PA, Vols 74:6242 and 76:10832] 1986, 1988) comes close but has some problems. Successful variants of a variety of composite and network models were not found (e.g., D. H. Ackley et al [see PA, Vol 73:7981]; J. A. Anderson, 1972 [see PA, Vol 51:10424]). The results suggest constraints on the future development of such models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of automatism of social judgments.

Two studies, with 28 Ss, examined the development and correlates of automatic processing. Ss judged the suitability for a given occupation of a stimulus person described by traits or performed a similar stereotyped judgment task. Results show that automatism developed relatively rapidly (within a few dozen trials) and required repeated execution of the same process, not necessarily with the same content. Increases in processing efficiency, the ability to transfer the increased efficiency to new information content, and memory storage were related to automatism of a process developed through practice. A tentative theoretical account is presented that relates these results to others in social cognition and cognitive psychology, particularly those reported by J. R. Anderson (1983) on the architecture of cognition and by E. R. Smith (see record 1984-28664-001) on social inference processes. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Making interpretable forgetting comparisons: Explicit versus hidden assumptions.

G. R. Loftus (see record 1986-05498-001), R. S. Bogartz (see record 1990-09037-001), and others have questioned forgetting comparisons based on tests of interaction between retention and a second variable. A method for comparing forgetting between conditions on the basis of an article by N. H. Anderson (1963) is presented here. The shape method compares the underlying "shapes" of the performance curves. Anderson's shape method is outlined for memory studies, and its inherent assumptions are stated. A statistical test is developed to apply the shape method to realistic situations in which zero retention interval or asymptotic performance data are not available. A power analysis varied the memory curve shape, sample size, and standard deviation and demonstrated the method's ability to detect shape differences. Application to a recent study claiming a forgetting difference yielded the opposite conclusion. Theoretical and practical limitations of Loftus's and Bogartz's methods are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fact retrieval in younger and older adults: The role of mental models.

Using a fan effect paradigm, three experiments tested whether younger and older adults differ in the retrieval of integrated and nonintegrated facts, where integration refers to the development of a mental model. Earlier work by G. A. Radvansky and R. T. Zacks (see record 1992-04153-001) had found that as long as facts can be integrated into a single mental model, young adults show no increase in retrieval time or error rates as the size of the subset of related facts increases (i.e., no fan effect). The present studies show a similar pattern for older adults. By contrast, and in confirmation of our previous findings on age differences and the fan effect (L. D. Gerard et al; see record 1991-32781-001), older adults show an exaggerated fan effect, at least in their error rates, on subsets of related facts not easily integrated into a single mental model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of order information in free recall: Application to the word-frequency effect.

According to an order-encoding account of free recall, the free recall of unrelated words is organized according to their order of presentation in the study list, with unusual items attracting more attentional resources to item encoding than usual items, but at the expense of order encoding. This account correctly predicted (a) better free recall and serial-order memory for high-frequency (HF) than low-frequency (LF) words in pure lists and (b) equivalent serial-order memory for HF and LF words but superior recall of LF words in mixed lists. The mixed-list recall results and the finding that overall list recall did not depend on the proportion of HF words comprising a list are inconsistent with G. Gillund and R. M. Shiffrin's (see record 1984-08340-001) search of associative memory (SAM) explanation. The order-encoding account of the differential effects of other variables (e.g., generation and bizarreness) on free recall in pure versus mixed lists is also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual variability and serial position effects in free recall.

In immediate free recall, words recalled successively tend to come from nearby serial positions. M. J. Kahana (see record 1996-93836-009) documented this effect and showed that this tendency, which the authors refer to as the lag recency effect, is well described by a variant of the search of associative memory (SAM) model (J. G. W. Raaijmakers & R. M. Shiffrin, 1980, 1981). In 2 experiments, participants performed immediate, delayed, and continuous distractor free recall under conditions designed to minimize rehearsal. The lag recency effect, previously observed in immediate free recall, was also observed in delayed and continuous distractor free recall. Although two-store memory models, such as SAM, readily account for the end-of-list recency effect in immediate free recall, and its attenuation in delayed free recall, these models fail to account for the long-term recency effect. By means of analytic simulations, the authors show that both the end of list recency effect and the lag recency effect, across all distractor conditions, can be explained by a single-store model in which context, retrieved with each recalled item, serves as a cue for subsequent recalls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multidimensional models and iconic decay: Reply to di Lollo and Dixon.

Discusses 2 issues raised by V. di Lollo and P. Dixon (see record 1992-33922-001). First, the authors formalize the notion of "informational dimensionality" and demonstrate that G. R. Loftus's extraction-rate model is equivalent to di Lollo and Dixon's "dual-decay model" with respect to dimensionality. Second, the authors describe how the extraction-rate model can be modified to apply it to 2 data sets reported by di Lollo and Dixon. The major modifications involve (1) the assumption of capacity limitations in short-term memory and (2) the assumption of differential information-extraction rates prior to and after probe presentation in a partial-report paradigm. The authors demonstrate that although the model can account qualitatively for di Lollo and Dixon's data, it cannot account for them quantitatively. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Process, not representation: Reply to Radavansky (1999).

The size of fan effects is determined by processes at retrieval, not by whether or not information is represented as situations. Evidence contradicts G. A. Radvansky's (see record 1999-05245-005) claim that time to retrieve information from a situation does not depend on the number of elements in the situation. Moreover, Radvansky's principles for ascribing situational models to experiments appear to be post hoc ways of redescribing the data. On the other hand, the evidence does support the Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational (ACT-R) assumption that participants can adjust their attentional weightings and so produce differential fan effects. Moreover, the ACT-R theory of the fan effect is consistent with many other findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recapitulation of a theme by Lashley? Comment on Wood's simulated lesion experiment.

C. C. Wood (see record 1979-27552-001) reported that simulated lesions of neural elements in the memory model of J. A. Anderson et al (see record 1978-22353-001) can produce deficits consistent with the principle of mass action and equipotentiality or with localization of function, depending on the exact nature of the lesion and the problem given to the model. It is argued that the fact that some tasks are affected by damage to any one of many components, whereas others are affected by damage only to very few, is an advantage when trying to deduce what an area of the brain does from the behavioral effects of removing it. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two modes of transfer in artificial grammar learning.

Participants can transfer grammatical knowledge acquired implicitly in 1 vocabulary to new sequences instantiated in both the same and a novel vocabulary. Two principal theories have been advanced to account for these effects. One suggests that sequential dependencies form the basis for cross-domain transfer (e.g., Z. Dienes et al, see record 1999-13687-003). Another argues that a form of episodic memory known as abstract analogy is sufficient (e.g., L. R. Brooks & J. R. Vokey, see record 1992-00385-001). Three experiments reveal the contributions of the 2. In Experiment 1 sequential dependencies form the only basis for transfer. Experiment 2 demonstrates that this process is impaired by a change in the distributional properties of the language. Experiment 3 demonstrates that abstract analogy of repetition structure is relatively immune to such a change. These findings inform theories of artificial grammar learning and the transfer of grammatical knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Repetition effects in word and pseudoword identification: Comment on Salasoo, Shiffrin, and Feustel.

Discusses 2 recent articles by T. C. Feustel et al (see record 1984-08643-001) and A. Salasoo et al (see record 1986-03032-001), which argue that word identification is based on episodic and semantic memory. Feustel et al argued for separate processing stages affected by repetition (episodic memory) and lexicality (semantic memory). To account for the finding that number of repetitions interacts with lexicality, Salasoo et al invoked the same 2 types of memory, operating in parallel rather than serially. It is argued that data by Salasoo et al are compatible with a wide variety of competing theories, including some that do not involve episodic memory. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The sea horse comes of age: Theoretical comment on Rehbein, Killiany, and Mahut (2005) and Killiany, Rehbein, and Mahut (2005).

Impairments in various aspects of learning and memory have been ascribed to the effects of damage to the hippocampal formation in adult nonhuman primates. Whether these effects reflect disturbance of a unitary process or multiple processes within the hippocampus and whether other systems may participate in these functions is unclear. After making hippocampal ablations in infant rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), L. Rehbein, R. Killiany, and H. Mahut (2005) (see record 2005-06959-001) and R. Killiany, L. Rehbein, and H. Mahut (2005) (see record 2005-06959-002) reported a dissociation of effect between tasks of recognition memory and contextual retrieval (impaired) and associative learning (spared). The findings point to an ontogenetic dissociation of function within the hippocampal formation and, at the same time, support the view of the coexistence of at least two neural systems that underlie memory and learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Misleading postevent information and the memory impairment hypothesis: Comment on Belli and reply to Tversky and Tuchin.

R. F. Belli (see record 1989-24859-001) and B. Tversky and M. Tuchin (see record 1989-24890-001) used a "Yes"/"No" recognition procedure to explore effects of misleading postevent information on memory for events. We examine the data and arguments presented in these studies, concluding that neither study demonstrates that misleading postevent information impairs memory for the original event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental model organization.

Previous research (G. A. Radvansky and R. T. Zacks; see record 1992-04153-001) has shown that the fan effect is mediated not by the number of nominal associations paired with a concept but by the number of mental models into which related concepts are organized. Specifically, newly learned "facts" about different objects in one location are integrated into a single mental model and no fan effect is produced, whereas facts about one object in different locations are not integrated and a fan effect is produced. In 6 experiments the authors investigated several factors' influence on location-based organization preferences. No impact on either article type (definite or indefinite) or object transportability was found. However, animate sentence subjects (people) reduced preference for location-based organizations. A clear person-based organization emerged by using locations that typically contain only a single person (e.g., phone booth) to make location-based situations less plausible. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)