Systematic Assessment of Maps as Source Information in Landscape-change Research

A methodology is proposed for systematic map assessment to contribute to landscape-change research. Two major topic areas are dealt with, namely: content, quality and usefulness of landscape information on different maps; and methods used in the spatial conversion of maps into digital systems (e.g. geographical information systems). The major focus is on information about physical landscape characteristics (e.g. land cover) and land uses. The approach was tested using a sequence of nine large- and medium-scale basic maps of the island of Ruissalo in SW Finland from between 1690 and 1998. Fundamental differences were found in the thematic consistency of landscape information, mainly related to the scale, purpose and generalization of landscape information on different maps. Spatial matching was tested for a set of three old maps using four image rectification functions. The results showed that spatial matching of old maps is difficult, and success in rectification is influenced by many factors. Evaluation and selective transformation of landscape information from maps and the use of supportive information from other sources can assist in landscape-change analysis based on map sequences.     

Reconstructing nineteenth century landscapes from historical maps—the Survey of Western Palestine as a case study

Geographic information systems allow the extraction and quantitative analysis of information from historical maps. The aims of this research were to examine the completeness of information represented on the 1881 Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) map, to quantitatively reconstruct the landscape of nineteenth century Palestine and to explore whether spatial patterns in land cover/land use can be partially explained statistically by physical and human factors. Using historical aerial photos, we concluded that most of the major past landscape features were indeed shown on the PEF map, with an average overall correspondence of 53%. Forests and Mediterranean maquis were more abundant at distances greater than 2 km from towns and villages. Specific land cover/land-use types were associated with certain soil types, topographic regions and rainfall thresholds. In conclusion, the 1881 PEF map can serve as a reliable reference for understanding the land cover/land-use patterns of nineteenth century Palestine.     

References for fragmentation analysis of the rural matrix in cultural landscapes

Next to the problem of fragmented nature, also the fragmentation of the rural matrix in rapidly changing cultural landscapes deserves attention. Because of the multifunctionality of these landscapes, a reflection is needed about the references for fragmentation analysis and interpretation. Flanders (Belgium) is taken as pilot area because of its high degree of urbanisation, road development and intensity of land use. Fragmentation analysis is based on deliberate selections of relevant land use systems in the first place, next on the explicit definition of some past, planned or idealistic reference condition. Differencing or rationing actual and reference landscape structure indicators yields fragmentation maps with enhanced interpretation possibilities for landscape and spatial planning.     

Spatio-temporal dynamics and evolution of land use change and landscape pattern in response to rapid urbanization

Analyzing spatio-temporal characteristics of land use change is essential for understanding and assessing ecological consequence of urbanization. More importantly, such analysis can provide basic information for appropriate decision-making. By integrating historical high spatial-resolution SPOT images and spatial metrics, this study explored the spatio-temporal dynamics and evolution of land use change and landscape pattern in response to the rapid urbanization process of a booming-developing city in China from 1996 to 2006. Accurate and consistent land use change information was first extracted by the change detection method proposed in this study. The changes of landscape pattern were then analyzed using a series of spatial metrics which were derived from FRAGSTATS software. The results indicated that the rapid urbanization process has brought about enormous land use changes and urban growth at an unprecedented scale and rate and, consequently, given rise to substantial impacts on the landscape pattern. Findings further revealed that cropland and water were the major land use types developed for urban sprawl. Meanwhile, the landscape pattern underwent fundamental transition from agricultural-land-use dominant landscape to urban-land-use dominant landscape spanning the 10 years. The results not only confirmed the applicability and effectiveness of the combined method of remote sensing and metrics, but also revealed notable spatio-temporal features of land use change and landscape pattern dynamics throughout the different time periods (1996–2000, 2000–2003 and 2003–2006).     

Changes in the landscape structure of the Nagara River Basin, central Japan

A watershed is a structural and functional unit of a landscape consisting of various environments and sustaining a certain biodiversity. Conservation of watershed environments is important at both the regional and the national level. As a basis for conservation management, sufficient information about landscape structure should be provided for the whole terrestrial area of a watershed. In the present study, we reconstructed the former landscape structure and elucidated the changes in land use patterns during a period of about 80 years after 1900 (late Meiji era) in the Nagara River Basin, central Japan. We used three sets of maps for the analyses: old and modern topographical maps made in 1909, 1971 and 1992 by the Geographical Agency. Each map (ca. 18 km×22 km) was divided into 400 (20×20) grid cells, according to latitude and longitude. The dimension of each grid cell was about 1 km² (0.9 km×1.1 km). In each grid cell, all land-cover types were inventoried and the most dominant one was determined to be the dominant land-cover. The relative dominance (RD), frequency (FQ) and similarity index (SI) were calculated for analyses. The relative dominance of broad-leaved forest decreased, whereas those of conifer forest and residential areas increased throughout the whole study area during the 80-year period. However, regional differences in landscape change were found. In the upriver area, the relative dominance of broad-leaved forest decreased, while that of conifer forest increased. In the mid-river area, the relative dominance of conifer forest decreased, while that of broad-leaved forest increased. In the present study, we revealed the basic regional differences in landscape structure and their changes in the Nagara River Basin. Land use history with reference to socio-economics should be considered as an important factor affecting the present landscape structure.     

The neglect of aesthetics in landscape planning in Switzerland

In this paper, landscape is defined as any part of the Earth’s surface in which various aspects, such as terrestrial, aquatic, natural and cultural interact with differing dominance. Within landscapes, energy and material flows over time are major driving forces of landscape dynamics. Such a comprehensive approach to landscape should also be applied in landscape planning, however this is rarely the case in Switzerland. The concept of landscape aesthetics in particular is neglected, therefore, four theses are formulated and discussed in this paper.The tourist industry promotes Switzerland with pictures showing beautiful scenery. Some of the landscape elements shown, e.g. ecclesiastical buildings and historical profane buildings, are widely recognised for their aesthetic values, and scientifically examined by art historians and other disciplines. Strangely enough, this is not the case for cultural landscapes, despite the fact that they also reflect the history of human culture. This paradox evolves from the dichotomy between natural sciences and humanities. There is a lack of multi-, inter-, and trans-disciplinary approaches to studying cultural landscapes. The long-term genesis of the elements of the cultural landscape is illustrated by the typical structure of traditional cultural landscapes, i.e. “the hides of land” (i.e. strip-shaped forest clearings) (Hufenfluren).Between 1750 and 1850, many painters depicted the beauty of the traditional cultural landscape. Their paintings are acknowledged as a part of culture and treated accordingly, but this is not the case for the remains of the cultural landscape they painted. Comparing maps from different points in time reveal the loss of elements of cultural landscapes. Results show how traditional systems of land use led to highly structured landscapes, whereas today’s land-use levels out the scenery. Lack of public support significantly reduces the success of the legal tools to limit this process.     

文化转译视角下东京都大名庭园内富士见景观的空间构成研究 #

富士见文化以眺望富士山作为主要表现形式,影响江户幕府及大名氏族在庭园内创造了空间特征与精神信仰相融合的富士见景观。借助田野调查、古籍舆图、历史文献等,探究影响大名庭园富士见景观的发展背景。结合文化转译视角,对东京都区部及其周边的 7 个大名庭园内 11 处富士见景观的基本信息和谱系脉络进行整理,依据眺望类型、总体布局、建造形式、植物景观、功能属性等五个空间构成要素,转译形成同形转译、同意转译、形意转译等三种空间构成特征。补充了大名庭园眺望景观与借景富士山之间研究的缺憾,对相关保护与修复工作的开展以及我国古典园林中扎根文化传统的借景研究提供了启示与借鉴。     

The role of the spatial dimension within the framework of sustainable landscapes and natural capital

A new paradigm of Natural Capital and Sustainable Landscapes has been suggested. It implies the integration of economic, environmental and social-cultural qualities in a physical setting while focusing on functions in terms of goods and services for people. Due to its anthropocentric perspective it pays less attention to landscape structure and spatial arrangement compared to the widely applied patch-matrix concept. The matrix of land use elements provides the key to understanding land use systems and land use changes and it can play an important role in understanding land use pattern and their dynamics. But one of the remaining constraints for a direct application of landscape ecological concepts in practice is the lack of agreed ways to combine environmental, socio-economic and societal/cultural views. This paper examines both paradigms, asking: does the spatial arrangement of land use types add specific qualities beyond statistical measures of their existence and quantity? For instance, can a landscape be sustainable, as long as 20% of the land use is extensive, 10% is protection area, etc., no matter where the respective patches are, which typical size and shape they have, how connected patches are and how often incompatible land use types are adjacent? This paper elucidates spatial concepts for sustainable landscapes with an emphasis on the role of GIS.     

Remote sensing and GIS in modeling visual landscape change: a case study of the northwestern arid coast of Egypt

Land use planners in many countries have recognized the importance of the aesthetic values of landscape. Their desire to incorporate these values into decision-making processes has created a need to identify valid ways to quantify the scenic characteristics of landscapes. This has led to an increasing interest in the use of spatial data and geographic information systems (GIS) methodology in assessing visual attributes of the landscape. The objective of the present study is to assess the visual changes in a rapidly developing coastal area of Egypt using remotely sensed data (satellite images and aerial photographs) and raster GIS modeling. The analysis assesses changes between a period characterized by a vernacular, relatively natural landscape (1950s) and the beginning of the exploitation of the region for resorts (1990s). Using land use/land cover classes extracted from the satellite images and aerial photographs, four visual attributes of landscape are identified: land use/land cover diversity, activity (degree of naturalness), proximity to the shoreline, and topographic variety. A composite index is also developed. Although these attributes and the composite index rely mostly on the type of land use/land cover information on the landscape under consideration, the adopted techniques succeed in detecting several changes in the attributes, spatially locating them and mapping the magnitude of their changes. This study demonstrates what can be done to analyze and assess what is usually considered an incommensurable resource, the visual attributes of landscapes. It also reveals the extent of the impact of unplanned or ill-planned activities on one of the fragile resources of arid landscapes.     

Landscape change in Ramallah—Palestine (1994–2014)

The Palestinian landscape has always been subjected to dynamic processes of change. This article examines the landscape change in Ramallah city during the last 20 years by analysing two aerial photographs from two periods—1994 and 2014—to create land cover maps which illustrate the change in different landscape classes in the city. The article aims to quantify the landscape change in the specified periods using GIS and FRAGSTATS analysis, and to identify and explain spatial patterns of the landscape, taking into consideration the political, social, and economic circumstances. The results reveal a considerable change and fragmentation. The main change is an increase in the built-up area at the expense of a decrease in the permanent trees and scrub areas. This change, due to the occupation policies, is a reflection of many indicators, including population growth, migration, and an economic boom in the construction sector.     

Landscape mapping in England using an airphoto based land systems mapping approach

Landscape mapping and the value of airphoto interpretation in the construction of landscape maps are reviewed. The paper examines how land systems mapping, which had its origin as a resource survey method in 1957, is the basis for the airphoto approach, suitably informed by observations applicable to the European countryside and the aesthetic argument inherent in landscape classification. A recently completed example of a landscape map of a district council-sized area (300 sq. km) based on the airphoto land systems method is given. Other mapping methods and current products are briefly noted.     

(重新)塑造景观:中国的人类干预景观遗产

景观作为一个整体代表了地球表面的一部分,包括导致其典型形态的所有影响因子和相互关联性。换句话说,景观可以被视为一个生态系统。自然景观被人类干预(通常是农民和农业)到一定程度,即成为文化景观,生态系统演变为农业生态系统,人在这个生态系统中是主要的生态因子。我们今天所看到的文化景观,尤其在中国,是9 000年甚至更长的历史长河中,在自然和人类相互的影响之下逐步地改变、影响或适应特定的生态因子后形成的。由此产生的文化景观反映出人与自然在悠久历史中的相互关系。由于农业必须有定居点的存在,因此典型的文化景观包括土地利用系统以及村庄和建筑。更重要的是,一种长期稳定的文化景观是可持续土地利用的结果,代表了一种内在的审美价值。经由人类活动导致的自然景观向文化景观的转变不应被看作是对自然或自然景观的破坏,而应被理解为对景观的(重新)塑造。取决于是否适合农业发展,文化景观在21世纪面临的发展趋势包括集约化或彻底遗弃。风景园林的任务即在这两种极端情形之间找到平衡点,提出发展理念,同时考虑文化景观的历史的和美学的价值。     

Physical environmental modeling, visualization and query for supporting landscape planning decisions

Landscape planners need to make decisions about the best possible mix of landuses and their spatial arrangement in the landscape based on accurate, detailed, diverse and spatially explicit information. Traditionally, static, map-based land classifications have been used to support landscape planning decisions. However, land classifications have lacked the flexibility and adaptability necessary for planning in complex landscapes with competing demands. With the increasing availability of spatial databases, physical environmental models, visualization techniques and the analytical capabilities of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), more effective decision support systems can be developed for landscape planning. This paper discusses the assembly of a multivariate spatial database of biologically significant physical environmental parameters (e.g. mean annual rainfall, minimum temperature, soil wetness) using environmental modeling techniques, and the visualization and interactive query of this database in landscape planning. Spatially distributed data layers of 21 parameters including climatic, soil, and hydrological parameters, are modeled on both the topographic and regional scale using physical environmental models linked to a GIS. Principal component analysis (PCA) is used to reduce the correlated data to five principal components (PCs) that capture over 91% of the physical environmental variation in the study area. The first three PCs were imported as bands of a 24-bit color image that enables the integrated multi-dimensional visualization of more than 83% of the environmental variation in the region. A prototype spatial decision support system called SimilarAreas was developed to provide an example of one type of interactive analysis useful in landscape planning that is possible with the database. SimilarAreas uses the concept of the environmental envelope [H.A. Nix, A biogeographic analysis of the Australian elapid snakes, in: R. Longmore (Ed.), Atlas of Elapid Snakes, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1986, pp. 4–15] of sites that have been interactively specified by the user and identifies other geographical areas with statistically similar environments to those specified using the environmental database. The system enables landscape planners to pose general queries like “Show me all areas with environments similar to these.” Specific application examples of SimilarAreas are provided in viticulture site planning and habitat restoration although potential applications of the modeling, visualization and query techniques described in this paper are much more diverse.     

Relationship between landscape visual attributes and spatial pattern indices: A test study in Mediterranean-climate landscapes

The analysis of the relationships between landscape visual quality and landscape structural properties is an active area of environmental perception research. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between landscape spatial pattern and the rating of visual aesthetic quality. Eight landscape photographs were evaluated for 11 visual attributes by 98 respondents. The scores obtained for these 11 attributes were subjected to principal components analysis in order to summarize the qualities used by the respondents and thus determine their visual preferences. For each photograph, three window sizes were defined (with respect to a landcover map) to cover the different areas corresponding to the visual field (foreground, mid-ground and background). The landscape spatial structure for each window was analyzed using spatial metrics. The correlation between each dimension and the spatial pattern indices of the landscape were then calculated. Positive correlations were obtained between visual aesthetic quality and a number of landscape pattern indices. The results suggest that landscape heterogeneity might be an important factor in determining visual aesthetic quality.     

Landscape mapping in England using an airphoto based land systems mapping approach

Landscape mapping and the value of airphoto interpretation in the construction of landscape maps are reviewed. The paper examines how land systems mapping, which had its origin as a resource survey method in 1957, is the basis for the airphoto approach, suitably informed by observations applicable to the European countryside and the aesthetic argument inherent in landscape classification. A recently completed example of a landscape map of a district council‐sized area (300 sq. km) based on the airphoto land systems method is given. Other mapping methods and current products are briefly noted.     

The application of ‘least-cost’ modelling as a functional landscape model

The growing awareness of the adverse effects of habitat fragmentation on natural systems has resulted in a rapidly increasing number of actions to reduce current fragmentation of natural systems as well as a growing demand for tools to predict and evaluate the effect of changes in the landscape on connectivity in the natural world. Recent studies used ‘least-cost’ modelling (available as a toolbox in GIS-systems) to calculate ‘effective distance’, a measure for distance modified with the cost to move between habitat patches based on detailed geographical information on the landscape as well as behavioural aspects of the organisms studied. We applied the method to a virtual landscape and a small scaled agricultural system subject to different scenarios in a land re-allotment project. We discuss the importance of technical aspects and ecological assumption underlying this modelling method. The model is shown to be a flexible tool to model functional connectivity in the study of the relation between landscape and mobility of organisms as well as in scenario building and evaluation in wild life protection projects and applied land management projects. Since ‘effective distance’ has the same units as Euclidean distance (m), this effective distance may be a straightforward way to include landscape and behavioural aspects in other models which include distance as a measure for isolation. We show the importance of the ‘ecological’ quality of the input maps and the choice of relevant landscape features and resistance values.     

APPLICATION OF RESEARCH ON ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN LA NDSCAPE PLANNING

Landscape planning adjusts spatial structures and functions by altering the types of land use / land cover and the patterns of landscapes, and thus further impacts ecosystem services. This paper examines the impacts of landscape planning on ecosystem services and draws the conclusion that the control over the types of land use / land cover, the altering of landscape patterns, and the adjustment of landscape functional characteristics could change the type, quality, and performance of ecosystem services, respectively. Through an overall review on the application of ecosystem service evaluation, spatial mapping, and scenario simulation, this paper further concludes their roles in landscape planning: ecosystem service evaluation provides means to ensure scientific landscape planning; spatial mapping serves as a basis to the decision making; and scenario simulation visualizes all kinds of possibilities for an optimal choice. At the same time, such applications in landscape planning practices, ranging from green space planning, ecological conservation redline planning, land use planning to biodiversity protection planning, are exemplified. Finally, this paper summarizes existing research findings and limitations and proposes that future research is expected to study the relationship between landscape planning and ecosystem services, to build a dynamic composite planning framework that can improve ecosystem services, and to propel the research on the tradeoff-and-synergy among ecosystem services in landscape planning.     

基于GIS的城市生态廊道构建

以四川省万源市为例,利用景观生态学理论和GIS空间分析技术,探索山地城市生态廊道构建的理性方法。分析发现,林地是万源市生态用地中最主要的景观类型,其平均斑块面积、平均形状指数、空间聚集度都较大,有较高的空间异质性。根据不同的用地类型对景观基质的能量流、信息流和物质流产生的障碍作用,计算各类建设用地对生态用地的生态障碍效应,并得到景观的潜在生态连接度。以平均破碎度小于0.4和聚集度大于80%的阈值提取林地景观斑块,依据障碍效应指数和生态连接度的空间分布,并考虑高程、坡度、现状用地类型等因素,搜索廊道的适宜建设区,构建生态廊道,最终形成规划区生态网络。     

城市总体规划生态敏感空间信息图谱的GIS构建——重庆市长寿区城市总规实证研究

生态空间控制是城市总体规划不可或缺的重要内容,也是构建生态城市的必然要求。以重庆长寿为例,利用地理信息系统与遥感技术探讨城市总体规划中生态敏感空间信息图谱的建构方法。以城市生态敏感空间识别与评价为前提,探讨了空间数据库的建设、评价指标的选择、数据处理模型构建等内容,以此为基础提出了生态敏感空间信息图谱的构建方法并叙述了详细过程。结果表明可以借助GIS和RS进行城市生态空间结构识别并构造其信息图谱,借助该图谱我们可以辅助城市总体规划进行方向性拓展决策。     

A landscape ecological model for wildlife enhancement of stormwater management practices in urban greenways

A spatial distribution model has been developed to predict the pattern of stormwater catchment facilities in developing urban areas. The model has been validated through comparison of predicted results with historical data in Guelph, Canada, using nearest neighbour analysis. The validated model has been applied to developing urban-rural fringe lands in Guelph to illustrate land use patterns likely to occur under different scenarios. Simulations of various scenarios for incorporating stormwater catchment facilities into greenways have been tested with the model and the resultant land use patterns compared with the status quo, through measures of landscape ecological integrity such as connectivity and porosity. The model was applied to an area on the edge of Guelph scheduled for development. The predicted land use patterns of various planning scenarios were generated and analysed. The results demonstrated that landscape integrity could be increased, urban wildlife habitat enhanced, and opportunities for residential non-consumptive wildlife recreation improved through integration of the evolving ‘blue-green’ open space provided by urban stormwater management facilities into existing greenways.