Applying Disruptive Preference Test Protocols to Increase the Number of “No Preference” Responses in the Placebo Pair,Using Chinese Consumers

One form of paired preference test protocol requires consumers to assess 2 pairs of products. One is the target pair under consideration, while the other is a putatively identical pair named the “placebo pair” which is also presented as a control. Counterintuitively, the majority of consumers report preferences when presented with the placebo pair. Their response frequencies are hypothesized to be those of consumers having “no preference” and are compared with the response frequencies elicited by a target pair, to determine whether the target pair elicits significant preferences. The primary goal of this paper was to study the robustness of 2 new so called disruptive protocols that reduced the proportion of consumers, who reported preferences when assessing a putatively identical pair of products. For this task, the tests were performed in a different language, in a different country, using different products from before. The results showed that the proportion of consumers reporting preferences for the placebo pair was reduced, confirming earlier work. Also, comparison of d? values showed a lack of significant overall differences between the placebo and target pairs, while chi‐squared analyses indicated significant differences in the response frequencies. This indicated that the sample was segmented into 2 balanced groups with opposing preferences.     

Asymmetric dominance as a potential source of bias in hedonic testing

A large and growing body of evidence from marketing and behavioral economics suggests consumer preferences are not fixed but instead depend on the choice set. Although the idea that context alters perception is not new to psychophysicists or sensory scientists, we suggest that asymmetric dominance may represent a novel and potentially important source of bias in hedonic product testing and food choice research. In a series of six experiments using model systems, commercially available beverages and solid foods, we explored the possibility that asymmetric dominance effects may influence the results of food preference testing. Within a model system (experiments 1-3), we failed to observe evidence of a bias arising from asymmetric dominance. In contrast, when perceptually complex beverages and foods were used (experiments 4-6), we found relative preference was altered by the introduction of an additional product into the choice set. Critically, we found this bias was able to induce a significant preference (experiments 4-5) or make a significant preference disappear (experiment 6). Implications of this potential source of bias are discussed in a context relevant to sensory scientists and product developers.     

Quantification of Sensory and Food Quality: The R-Index Analysis

ABSTRACT:  The accurate quantification of sensory difference/similarity between foods, as well as consumer acceptance/preference and concepts, is greatly needed to optimize and maintain food quality. The R-Index is one class of measures of the degree of difference/similarity, and was originally developed for sensory difference tests for food quality control, product development, and so on. The index is based on signal detection theory and is free of the response bias that can invalidate difference testing protocols, including categorization and same-different and A-Not A tests. It is also a nonparametric analysis, making no assumptions about sensory distributions, and is simple to compute and understand. The R-Index is also flexible in its application. Methods based on R-Index analysis have been used as detection and sensory difference tests, as simple alternatives to hedonic scaling, and for the measurement of consumer concepts. This review indicates the various computational strategies for the R-Index and its practical applications to consumer and sensory measurements in food science.     

Urban consumer preferences and sensory evaluation of locally produced and imported rice in West Africa

Parboiled rice produced in Ghana is of poor quality and is being overtaken by imported rice. This study sought to investigate consumer preference and relate sensory attributes with consumer acceptability of rice. The majority of consumers preferred imported raw and parboiled rice to that produced locally. Acceptability was influenced by location and gender. Individual preferences of consumers varied and four different segments of consumers with similar liking of the rice samples were identified. The largest three segments (86% of consumers) preferred the imported rice but differed in their preferences for the local rice. A niche segment (14%) mostly preferred traditional local rice. Regression models to predict consumer preference from the sensory panel scores were based on either brown colour of the cooked rice or unshelled paddy in the uncooked form. The models were suitable for three of the consumer segments representing 86% of the consumers. This suggests that while a sensory panel could be used to rapidly monitor consumer acceptability in product development, it was not valid for all consumers. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Alternative Hedonic Measures

Simple ranking and rating procedures for hedonic testing were developed from which signal detection analysis gave simple probability values indicating preference. Data were pooled over judges to give preference scores for specific groups of consumers. Rating was preferable when forced choice was to be avoided; ranking was preferable when response bias was a consideration. The rating procedure was less prone to instructional bias than the 9-point hedonic scale. Ranking methods were extended to measure‘likelihood to buy', when price was included in the decision, as well as degree of preference.     

Common components and specific weights analysis performed on preference data

For the analysis of preference ratings which are presented in the form of several data sets, each data set being associated with a consumer, we run a method of analysis called Common Components and Specific Weights Analysis. This method makes it possible to determine the underlying dimensions to the preferences expressed by the consumers. Moreover, it computes for each consumer and for each underlying dimension a weight that reflects the importance that this consumer attaches to the dimension being considered. In a subsequent stage, we performed a clustering of the consumers on the basis of their agreement upon the preference dimensions.     

Consumer liking of refined and whole wheat breads

ABSTRACT:  Preference for refined bread is often cited as a reason for the relatively low consumption of whole wheat bread; only a few studies, however, have examined consumer preferences between refined and whole wheat breads, and the results of these studies are inconclusive. Our objective was to determine if refined wheat bread is preferred to whole wheat bread. We hypothesized that people would prefer refined wheat bread. We conducted a taste test with 89 people. They rated their liking of 9 different breads chosen to represent several comparisons between equivalent refined and whole wheat breads. The participants also rated the intensity of 6- n -propylthiouracil (PROP) and completed a questionnaire about their bread preferences and purchasing habits. We classified the participants by their bread preference and their PROP taster status, and then examined the liking patterns of these subgroups. People preferred refined bread to whole wheat bread when both were made using equivalent ingredients and procedures. They liked the commercial samples of refined and whole wheat breads equally well. When people were classified by their bread preference, those who preferred refined bread liked the refined bread better in all comparisons. PROP nontasters liked all refined and whole wheat breads equally. Sensory preferences are a barrier to whole wheat bread consumption, but ingredient or processing modifications can improve liking of whole wheat bread to the level of refined bread.     

Rosé Wine Color Preference and Preference Stability by an Experienced and an Inexperienced Panel

SUMMARY— A comparison was made between an experienced and an inexperienced panel for their ability to form preferences for five rose wines of differing color characteristics and to maintain the preferences over a period of several months. A definite preference pattern for certain hues and brightnesses were established by comparison of the patterns to measured tristimulus color values. The inexperienced subjects were less consistent among themselves as to color preferences at the first testing but became more consistent at the second testing. The experienced panel had significantly more stable preferences than did the inexperienced group. Both groups showed similar preference patterns.     

Impact of formulation on high‐protein bar rheological and wear behaviors

Due to the popularity of high‐protein bars, many new formulations are being generated to meet consumer preferences. New formulations may have different mechanical behaviors that can negatively impact processing ability, which makes determining the effect of ingredients on processing ability important. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the effects of major ingredients in high‐protein bars on their rheological and tribological behaviors. Two response surface designs of model high‐protein bars comprising whey protein isolate (WPI), high‐fructose corn syrup (HFCS), and either canola oil (first design) or vegetable shortening (second design) were evaluated. Rheological tests, including adhesion, strain and frequency sweeps, large amplitude oscillatory shear, and wear testing, were conducted to determine the impact of individual ingredients on high‐protein bar mechanical behaviors. Oil‐based formulations had greater adhesion at higher levels of HFCS, while shortening‐based formulations were affected by WPI more than HFCS, resulting in lower overall adhesive maximum forces. Formulas with higher levels of WPI had lower phase angles and greater extent of nonlinear viscoelastic and strain‐hardening behaviors, while formulas with higher lipid and HFCS levels had higher phase angles. Overall, ingredient ratios had a notable impact on both oil‐ and shortening‐based high‐protein bar rheological and wear behaviors, suggesting that rheological and tribological testing could be useful for indicating processing ability of high‐protein bars. The information gained in this study can be used by food manufacturers that produce cold‐extruded or laminated food products. The results can help predict the ability of various formulations to be successfully processed, decreasing product development, and reformulation time and expense.     

Psychophysiological effect of odor

Techniques to measure the activity of the taste and odor molecules at the olfactory epithelium, taste bud, and brain response levels are now being used to determine and measure the actual transduction of the chemical information to the brain waves. We studied a number of methods of measuring brain wave responses to odorants and we settled on an electroencephalographic method of measuring the slow brain waves {>13 Hz} at the frontal location on the scalp. This technique known as contingent negative variation (CNV) measures the early component {at 400 to 1000 ms} of the beta wave variation, which can be negative, positive, or neutral depending on the odorant being presented to the subject. This component is almost independent of the subject's psychological state, degree of arousal, or level of consciousness and is known as the external component. The experimental paradigm creates a reproducible result in which odorants may be classified as stimulating, sedating, or neutral. These psychophysiological effects of odors on man appear to offer a means to determine precognitive responses directly related to the effect of the chemical messenger. There does not appear to be any bias as to sex, national origin, or race. At this point in our research efforts, we do not see evidence that there is a bias related to age. It is proposed that some of the problems of classical sensory evaluation can be helped by the use of psychophysiological recording techniques, such as CNV, as a measurement of brain activity and response to flavor and aroma.     

Color Codes for Paired Preference and Hedonic Testing

The use of color as a product coding device for consumer sensory testing was studied. Simple paired preference and hedonic tests were conducted using eight brightly colored, 2-inch round labels on a carbonated lemon-lime beverage packaged in 12-oz aluminum cans. We concluded that little or no bias exists for the eight colors when used in paired preference tests. For hedonic testing, an order/color bias was noted for some pairs of colors. With appropriate order balancing those effects can be understood and reduced. Therefore, color coding is a valid technique that can be used for consumer sensory testing.     

Internal preference mapping and the issue of satiety

Internal preference mapping (IPM) and Landscape Segmentation Analysis® (LSA) are two techniques broadly used to unfold consumers’ overall product liking ratings and create spatial maps that will provide further insights on consumers’ preferences. IPM is based on a vector model while LSA involves an ideal point model. Through a simulation and the analysis of 27 market research data sets, it is shown that IPM consistently creates a hedonic dimension that prevents the identification of satiety prone attributes (intensities higher or lower than a optimal level being disliked by the consumers) on that dimension. As a result, subsequent steps taken upon generating an IPM map such as the investigation of drivers of liking, population segmentation and the estimation of optimal product profiles have also a strong likelihood of resulting in distorted results, the level of distortion being dependent on the actual configuration of the underlying structure that IPM tried to uncover. It is also shown that a technique based on ideal points such as LSA does not exhibit this systematic artifact when unfolding liking data. Consequently, sensory scientists and market researchers should use caution when interpreting and using results issued from an internal preference mapping analysis.     

Preference segments among declared craft beer drinkers: Perceptual,attitudinal and behavioral responses underlying craft-style vs. traditional-style flavor preferences

Craft beer is a product category that continues to expand, and craft beer drinkers are generally differentiated from traditional (or mainstream) beer drinkers in terms of their preference for innovative beers with novel and complex flavor profiles, and greater involvement in beer and product-focused behaviors and activities. The present research explores the existence of flavor-driven segments within the overall craft beer segment, where some declared craft beer drinkers exhibit the characteristic craft beer preference (stronger and more complex flavors), while others exhibit a preference for less complex and more traditional flavors. Research conducted with craft-style and traditional-style beers (n = 6) confirmed such preference segments in a group of male New Zealanders (n = 120). The preference segments perceived the sensory and holistic/conceptual characteristics of the beers similarly. However, they differed in specific attitudes and behaviors toward craft beers that were associated with the extent of their use and exposure to craft beers. The presence of the two preference segments was interpreted as being the result of a normal transition of declared craft beer drinker preferences away from the lighter flavors of the traditional style beers to which they had been accustomed and toward the more novel and robust flavors of craft beers. This shift in flavor preferences is tentatively attributed to the same exposure effects (mere and evaluative) that are responsible for flavor preference development in other foods and beverages. The implications for craft and traditional brewers are discussed and suggestions for future research presented.     

Factors affecting dry-cured ham consumer acceptability

The objectives of the present study were (1) to compare the relative importance of price, processing time, texture and intramuscular fat in purchase intention of dry-cured ham through conjoint analysis, (2) to evaluate the effect of dry-cured ham appearance on consumer expectations, and (3) to describe the consumer sensory preferences of dry-cured ham using external preference mapping. Texture and processing time influenced the consumer preferences in conjoint analysis. Red colour intensity, colour uniformity, external fat and white film presence/absence influenced consumer expectations. The consumer disliked hams with bitter and metallic flavour and with excessive saltiness and piquantness. Differences between expected and experienced acceptability were found, which indicates that the visual preference of consumers does not allow them to select a dry-cured ham that satisfies their sensory preferences of flavour and texture.     

Consumer preferences for the color of unprocessed animal foods

Consumer choices for food products are often based on appearance; one important aspect being product color. We systematically review the literature on consumer preferences for the color of raw beef, pork, poultry, bee honey, cow milk, and chicken eggs to inform future food technology and marketing research; a total of 40 studies were identified. Consumer preferences for pork color vary widely globally and can depend on other demographic factors. A trend toward light and bright beef was observed in six out of eight studies. A pink color was preferred in chicken by consumers in Northern Ireland and Brazil; muscle color uniformity was also related to higher acceptance. Contrarily, a diverse selection of honey colors is preferred; dark golden, yellow, and amber products were liked by consumers across the globe. One study observed a preference for white (over yellowish) milk. Worldwide, white and brown eggshells are preferred nearly equally with considerable differences between continents and regions. Our review highlights the heterogeneity of color preferences for animal products, worldwide; research methods should focus on quantifying colors associated with preferences so that food producers can accurately market their diverse products in regions with corresponding color preferences.     

Effect of Sodium Nitrite on Flavor and TBA Values in Canned, Comminuted Ham

Canned, comminuted ham was manufactured with and without sodium nitrite to investigate the role of nitrite in developing and preserving cured meat flavor. Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values were measured throughout processing and the canned storage period, and compared with sensory triangle testing and preference evaluations of the canned products at intervals throughout 26 weeks storage. The development of oxidative rancidity as measured by TBA values was also evaluated on refrigerated products held aerobically. Results show decreased TBA values in product with nitrite. Statistically significant flavor differences were observed in products with and without nitrite; statistically significant preferences were observed only when product color was evident.     

Population genetic segmentation of MHC-correlated perfume preferences

It has become difficult to find a matching perfume. An overwhelming number of 300 new perfumes launch each year, and marketing campaigns target pre-defined groups based on gender, age or income rather than on individual preferences. Recent evidence for a genetic basis of perfume preferences, however, could be the starting point for a novel population genetic approach to better match perfumes with people's preferences. With a total of 116 participants genotyped for alleles of three loci of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), the aim of this study was to test whether common MHC alleles could be used as genetic markers to segment a given population into preference types. Significant deviations from random expectations for a set of 10 common perfume ingredients indicate how such segmentation could be achieved. In addition, preference patterns of participants confronted with images that contained a sexual communication context significantly differed in their ratings for some of the scents compared with participants confronted with images of perfume bottles. This strongly supports the assumption that genetically correlated perfume preferences evolved in the context of sexual communication. The results are discussed in the light of perfume customization.     

Text analysis of open-ended survey responses: a complementary method to preference mapping

The present study illustrates the use of computer-aided text analysis to evaluate the content of open-ended survey responses. During an in-hall test, different varieties of mayonnaise were evaluated by 165 respondents on a 10-point liking scale, with the option to freely comment on these assessments. An expert panel assessed the main sensory characteristics of the mayonnaises. Usually, preference mapping is applied to find out which sensory attributes drive consumer preferences for products. As an alternative, we will use the consumer statements to investigate this relationship. By counting words and looking at word combinations, we will use correspondence analysis to construct a visualization that is comparable to a preference map. Results from the analyses of the verbal responses are compared with the results from preference mapping. The agreement between the correspondence map and the preference map is striking, with the additional advantage being that the correspondence map is stated in terms of consumer language. The textual map is also in line with consumer understanding about creaminess. It appears that respondents find it easier to comment on their dislikes than on their likes. Some advantages and disadvantages of analyzing open-ended survey responses are also addressed.     

A theoretical description and experimental exploration of tri-reference point theory with respect to food choice

Recent findings within behavioural decision-making suggest that individuals make use of a tri-reference point set when making choices. This implies that choices and preference formation among competing products that are considered acceptable, but differ in desirability, are formed differently along the continuum from bottom line to target level. This study examined whether personal goals, as multiple reference points in relation to food product choice, inherit the properties of a value function. It was posited that goals as cognitive constructs are translated through the target object (the product) and through judgement and context into a representation of identified product preferences. The types of preferences that characterise the different goal levels were then analysed using data collected in an in-store, non-hypothetical consumer experiment with a random sample of 236 consumers. The existence of tri-reference point dependence was strongly supported, with the data indicating that product choices and preferences were moderated by transitions across reference states. Moreover, during transitions notable relative changes in evaluation of the product were identified. These results have normative implications for food product marketing in terms of targeting consumer needs. More importantly, they have strong methodological implications for studies on consumer preferences.