Empirical evidence,evaluation criteria and challenges for the effectiveness of virtual and mixed reality tools for training operators of car service maintenance

The debate on effectiveness of virtual and mixed reality (VR/MR) tools for training professionals and operators is long-running with prominent contributions arguing that there are several shortfalls of experimental approaches and assessment criteria reported within the literature. In the automotive context, although car-makers were pioneers in the use of VR/MR tools for supporting designers, researchers started only recently to explore the effectiveness of VR/MR systems as mean for driving external operators of service centres to acquire the procedural skills necessary for car maintenance processes. In fact, from 463 journal articles on VR/MR tools for training published in the last thirty years, we identified only eight articles in which researchers experimentally tested the effectiveness of VR/MR tools for training service operators’ skills. To survey the current findings and the deficiencies of these eight studies, we use two main drivers: (i) a well-known framework of organizational training programmes, and (ii) a list of eleven evaluation criteria widely applied by researchers of different fields for assessing the effectiveness of training carried out with VR/MR systems. The analysis that we present allows us to: (i) identify a trend among automotive researchers of focusing their analysis only on car service operators’ performance in terms of time and errors, by leaving unexplored important pre- and post-training aspects that could affect the effectiveness of VR/MR tools to deliver training contents – e.g., people skills, previous experience, cibersickness, presence and engagement, usability and satisfaction and (ii) outline the future challenges for designing and assessing VR/MR tools for training car service operators.     

Effectiveness of a multidevice 3D virtual environment application to train car service maintenance procedures

This paper reports a study which demonstrates the advantages of using virtual-reality-based systems for training automotive assembly tasks. Sixty participants were randomly assigned to one of the following three training experiences to learn a car service procedure: (1) observational training through video instruction; (2) an experiential virtual training and trial in a CAVE; and (3) an experiential virtual training and trial through a portable 3D interactive table. Results show that virtual trained participants, after the training, can remember significantly better (p < .05) the correct execution of the steps compared to video-trained trainees. No significant differences were identified between the experiential groups neither in terms of post-training performances nor in terms of proficiency, despite differences in the interaction devices. The relevance of the outcomes for the automotive fields and for the designers of virtual training applications are discussed in light of the outcomes, particularly that virtual training experienced through a portable device such as the interactive table can be effective, as can training performed in a CAVE. This suggests the possibility for automotive industries to invest in advanced portable hardware to deliver effectively long-distance programs of training for car service operators placed all over the world.     

Regression models of emergency medical service demand for different types of emergencies

Second-order statistical regression models are developed for the rates of demand for different types of emergency medical services (EMS) as they relate to various socioeconomic, demographic, and other characteristics of a service area. The model parameters are estimated by the recent technique of ridge regression, which is shown to provide superior estimates to those of the ordinary least squares regression method, because of the presence of substantial multicollinearity (nonorthogonality) in the exogenous data set. The ridge results are also compared with those derived from a related Bayesian approach. The resulting models provide substantial fits to the empirical data for the EMS system of the city of Atlanta, GA.     

Efficiency improvement of genetic network programming by tasks decomposition in different types of environments

Genetic Programming and Evolvable Machines - Genetic Network Programming (GNP) is a relatively recently proposed evolutionary algorithm which is an extension of Genetic Programming (GP). However,...     

A multinomial model for the machine interference problem with different service types and multiple operators

This paper proposes a model for a special case of the machine interference problem (MIP), where each of N identical machines randomly requests several different service types. Each request for a service type is fulfilled by an operator who can provide only one service type. The model allows the calculation of the expected interference (waiting) time in the queue for each service type, according to the multinomial distribution. The uniqueness of the model is that under its assumptions internal service order and queue discipline are not needed for the interference calculations. The model requires as inputs only the machine runtime and the average time of each service type that is needed to produce one unit. These inputs can be obtained by a common work measurement. The model enables practitioners to determine the optimal numbers of operators that are needed for each service type in order to minimize the cost per unit or maximize the profit, or to set other performance measures. To demonstrate the applicability of the model, a theoretical analysis and a case study are presented.     

Perceptions of the effectiveness of system dynamics-based interactive learning environments: An empirical study

The use of simulations in general and of system dynamics simulation based interactive learning environments (SDILEs) in particular is well recognized as an effective way of improving users’ decision making and learning in complex, dynamic tasks. However, the effectiveness of SDILEs in classrooms has rarely been evaluated. This article describes the construction, integration, and evaluation of an interactive learning environment in two educational settings. Subsequently, it explores how undergraduate business students perceive SDILEs and SDILEs-based course approach. This research draws on data obtained from two courses in undergraduate business program, over a period of three years. Results of this study suggest that students enrolled in the SDILE-based courses do indeed perceive important learning benefits and educational value. Further more, introduction of SDILE-bases courses at higher level are more beneficial than at the lower level introductory courses. However, there is need of more resources to be developed and deployed to harness fully the benefits of experiential learning provided through SDILE-integrated course approach.     

Lingual and non-lingual safety training methodology effectiveness: Does language of origin impact effectiveness

Environment, Health and Safety (EHS) trainings are used by global industries to mitigate risks and are often provided in a lingua franca (often English). This research investigated a strategy for overcoming language barriers associated with performance, comprehension, and training effectiveness. Non-linguistic (e.g., EU's Napo animated trainings) and English language (ENG) versions of EHS training were compared for effectiveness with native English language participants (L1), non-native English language participants (L2), and non-English language participants (L0).In the 1st study, 102 L1 & L2 U.S. employees completed one of the two trainings and were assessed on their reaction to and comprehension of the training. For this study, ENG was more effective and preferred by both language groups and this may be due to the workers' English proficiency and the number of channels of communication provided by the training medium. In the 2nd study, 78 L0 Brazilian and Chinese employees completed trainings and were assessed identically to the 1st study. For these participants, Napo training was more effective and preferred by both groups and this was likely because ENG L0 trainees had no channels for processing the information versus Napo's single channel of information. Interestingly, Brazilians in the ENG group outperformed their Chinese counterparts. Conversely, Chinese in the Napo group outperformed Brazilians in the Napo group.Though these findings are somewhat intuitive, they are extremely important for two reasons: 1) there is remarkable dearth of empirical research regarding the effects of the use of lingua franca for safety training. 2) Even though the idea of using lingua franca for training with L0 workers may seem obvious, there are a large number of international companies that use this for their EHS training. The findings from this study may provide a more effective and affordable method for some of these companies’ safety training needs.     

The choices people make: the types of buddy icons people select for self-presentation online

People are adapting their self-presentation strategies to utilize both online and offline communication in their interactions with strangers, co-workers, family, and friends. One way people communicate online is through the use of instant messaging, which includes the use of graphical representations of people called buddy icons. This project presents the results of a survey of the buddy icons 93 participants were currently using in their instant messaging interactions. It examines the extent to which self-presentation theory (Goffman 1959) can explain the choices people are making about how to self-present elements of their identity online. The icons were categorized and users were asked why they choose them as well as when and whether they change them with different interaction partners. Results show that male users select different categories of buddy icons than females but that most users select buddy icons that are human like, low on photorealism, and consistent with their biological sex. Users also reported that they rarely change their icons and that they selected human buddy icons when they want to increase social presence.     

Learning to make decisions in dynamic environments: effects of time constraints and cognitive abilities

This study investigated the effects of time constraints and cognitive abilities on dynamic decision making (DDM). The learning and performance of individuals trained in a DDM task with time constraints were compared with those who were trained without time constraints. Although all participants received the same total amount of time to perform the task, individuals under more stringent time constraints were given 3 times more practice trials on the first 2 days of the study than were people under less stringent time constraints. Despite the additional practice runs, participants under high time constraints performed worse than did participants under low time constraints on the 3rd day of the study. A subsequent analysis of cognitive abilities and decision heuristics revealed that individuals' actions corresponded with simple heuristic predictions more closely with minimal practice than with extended practice, under high rather than low time constraints, and in individuals with low rather than high cognitive abilities. These findings suggest that mere repetition of a task with less time within a trial is counterproductive to learning and that learning depends on cognitive abilities. Potential applications of this research include the design of training procedures for dynamic tasks.     

Studying the effectiveness of multi-user immersive environments for collaborative evaluation tasks

Massively Multiuser On-line Learning (MMOL) Platforms, often called “virtual learning worlds”, constitute a still unexplored context for communication-enhanced learning, where synchronous communication skills in an explicit social setting enhance the potential of effective collaboration. In this paper, we report on an experimental study of collaborative evaluation in an MMOL setting with 21 graduate students enrolled in university courses in technology-mediated teaching and learning. This study was carried out using a prototype of a 3D MMOL platform built around an interactive space called “MadriPolis”. This space was used to recreate an adequate scenario for a collaborative experience about Learning Object evaluation using the mainstream Learning Object Review Instrument (LORI), which is based on a Convergent Participation Model (CPM). The same experience was carried out using a conventional LCMS (Learning Content Management System) platform with the aim of contrasting the outcomes and interaction patterns in the two settings. This study makes use of Social Network Analysis (SNA) measures to describe the interactions between tutors and learners. By dwelling on the advantages of immersive environments, SNA indexes revealed that these interactions were rather dense and that student participation was rather broad-based in the case of the MMOL. The results suggest that MMOL platforms could be used in collaborative evaluation tasks as a means to enhance both tutor interaction patterns and the strength of the group's relationship.     

Studying the effectiveness of multi-user immersive environments for collaborative evaluation tasks

Massively Multiuser On-line Learning (MMOL) Platforms, often called “virtual learning worlds”, constitute a still unexplored context for communication-enhanced learning, where synchronous communication skills in an explicit social setting enhance the potential of effective collaboration. In this paper, we report on an experimental study of collaborative evaluation in an MMOL setting with 21 graduate students enrolled in university courses in technology-mediated teaching and learning. This study was carried out using a prototype of a 3D MMOL platform built around an interactive space called “MadriPolis”. This space was used to recreate an adequate scenario for a collaborative experience about Learning Object evaluation using the mainstream Learning Object Review Instrument (LORI), which is based on a Convergent Participation Model (CPM). The same experience was carried out using a conventional LCMS (Learning Content Management System) platform with the aim of contrasting the outcomes and interaction patterns in the two settings. This study makes use of Social Network Analysis (SNA) measures to describe the interactions between tutors and learners. By dwelling on the advantages of immersive environments, SNA indexes revealed that these interactions were rather dense and that student participation was rather broad-based in the case of the MMOL. The results suggest that MMOL platforms could be used in collaborative evaluation tasks as a means to enhance both tutor interaction patterns and the strength of the group's relationship.     

Informal learning in work environments: training with the Social Web in the workplace

The Internet and its increasing usage has changed informal learning in depth. This change has affected young and older adults in both the workplace and in higher education. But, in spite of this, formal and non-formal course-based approaches have not taken full advantage of these new informal learning scenarios and technologies. The Web 2.0 is a new way for people to communicate across the Internet. Communication is a means of transformation and knowledge exchange. These are the facts that cannot be obviated by the organisations in their training programmes and knowledge management. This special issue is devoted to investigating how informal learning changes or influences online information in Social Web and training strategies in institutions. In order to do so, five papers will present different approaches of informal learning in the workplace regarding Web 2.0 capabilities.     

Rich socio-cognitive agents for immersive training environments: case of NonKin Village

Demand is on the rise for scientifically based human-behavior models that can be quickly customized and inserted into immersive training environments to recreate a given society or culture. At the same time, there are no readily available science model-driven environments for this purpose (see survey in Sect. 2). In researching how to overcome this obstacle, we have created rich (complex) socio-cognitive agents that include a large number of social science models (cognitive, sociologic, economic, political, etc) needed to enhance the realism of immersive, artificial agent societies. We describe current efforts to apply model-driven development concepts and how to permit other models to be plugged in should a developer prefer them instead. The current, default library of behavioral models is a metamodel, or authoring language, capable of generating immersive social worlds. Section 3 explores the specific metamodels currently in this library (cognitive, socio-political, economic, conversational, etc.) and Sect. 4 illustrates them with an implementation that results in a virtual Afghan village as a platform-independent model. This is instantiated into a server that then works across a bridge to control the agents in an immersive, platform-specific 3D gameworld (client). Section 4 also provides examples of interacting in the resulting gameworld and some of the training a player receives. We end with lessons learned and next steps for improving both the process and the gameworld. The seeming paradox of this research is that as agent complexity increases, the easier it becomes for the agents to explain their world, their dilemmas, and their social networks to a player or trainee.     

Evaluating mobile apps for breathing training: The effectiveness of visualization

Deep and slow breathing exercises can be an effective adjunct in the treatment of stress, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, chronic pain and depression. Breathing techniques are traditionally learned in courses with trainers and/or with materials such as audio CDs for home practice. Recently, mobile apps have been proposed as novel breathing training tools, but to the best of our knowledge no research has focused on their evaluation so far. In this paper, we study three different designs for breathing training apps. The first employs audio instructions as in traditional training based on audio CDs, while the other two include visualizations of the breathing process, representative of those employed in current breathing training apps. We carry out a thorough analysis, focusing on users’ physiological parameters as well as subjective perception. One visualization produces better results both objectively (measured deepness of breath) and subjectively (users’ preferences and perceived effectiveness) than the more traditional audio-only design. This indicates that a visualization can contribute to the effectiveness of breathing training apps. We discuss which features could have allowed one visualization (but not the other) to obtain better results than traditional audio-only instructions.     

Determining the training effectiveness of flight simulators: some basic issues and practical developments

This paper seeks to examine some of the assumptions that can confuse attempts to determine the training effectiveness of flight simulators. It sets out the arguments in favour of using measures of training effectiveness derived from the concept of transfer of training and examines ways in which information may be used to present more detailed specification for training device requirements. It also draws attention to a number of interacting factors (eg, cost and utilisation) which must be taken into account when arriving at an assessment of training effectiveness.     

Convergence adoption model (CAM) in the context of a smart car service

This study proposes the convergence adoption model (CAM) in the context of a smart car service. The unique characteristics of convergence technology demand the incorporation of compatibility judgment, task-technology-fit (TTF) and the effect of visual design to fully understand users' adoption intention. The results of our study indicate that the compatibility with past experiences with existing and comparable technologies is indeed a critical factor affecting perceived ease-of-use, usefulness, and enjoyment of convergence technology. TTF is found to directly influence the adoption intention and mediate the effect of perceived usefulness and enjoyment on the adoption intention. Finally, the results show that visual attractiveness of the interface design enhances the evaluation of the key constructs of our model, such as compatibility judgment, perceived enjoyment, and adoption intention of convergence technology.     

New management policies to improve the effectiveness of multi-station service organizations

Clark et al ( 1992)reported on the use of a computer simulation model to show that significant reduction in customer ‘ waiting time’ could be achieved by new management policies for multi-station service organizations. They modelled a multi-phase queuing structure and showed reductions in the system variable ‘ time in system’ when servers were pooled at the first reception desk, rather than having single servers at multiple desks to provide service. Their model also demonstrated a greater savings in system transit time when the servers moved with the customers through subsequent tasks (multi-phase systems) This paper uses classical queuing theory to evaluate these results. We conclude that Clark et al' s findings can be supported through use of the classical waiting line formulas.     

Editorial: Task planning and motion control problems of service robots in human-centered environments

Intelligent Service Robotics -