Monitoring of thermal therapy based on shear modulus changes: I. shear wave thermometry

The clinical applicability of high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for noninvasive therapy is today hampered by the lack of robust and real-time monitoring of tissue damage during treatment. The goal of this study is to show that the estimation of local tissue elasticity from shear wave imaging (SWI) can lead to the 2-D mapping of temperature changes during HIFU treatments. This new concept of shear wave thermometry is experimentally implemented here using conventional ultrasonic imaging probes. HIFU treatment and monitoring were, respectively, performed using a confocal setup consisting of a 2.5-MHz single-element transducer focused at 30 mm on ex vivo samples and an 8-MHz ultrasound diagnostic probe. Thermocouple measurements and ultrasound-based thermometry were used as a gold standard technique and were combined with SWI on the same device. The SWI sequences consisted of 2 successive shear waves induced at different lateral positions. Each wave was created using 100-μs pushing beams at 3 depths. The shear wave propagation was acquired at 17,000 frames/s, from which the elasticity map was recovered. HIFU sonications were interleaved with fast imaging acquisitions, allowing a duty cycle of more than 90%. Elasticity and temperature mapping was achieved every 3 s, leading to realtime monitoring of the treatment. Tissue stiffness was found to decrease in the focal zone for temperatures up to 43°C. Ultrasound-based temperature estimation was highly correlated to stiffness variation maps (r2 = 0.91 to 0.97). A reversible calibration phase of the changes of elasticity with temperature can be made locally using sighting shots. This calibration process allows for the derivation of temperature maps from shear wave imaging. Compared with conventional ultrasound-based approaches, shear wave thermometry is found to be much more robust to motion artifacts.     

Quantitative imaging of nonlinear shear modulus by combining static elastography and shear wave elastography

The study of new tissue mechanical properties such as shear nonlinearity could lead to better tissue characterization and clinical diagnosis. This work proposes a method combining static elastography and shear wave elastography to derive the nonlinear shear modulus by applying the acoustoelasticity theory in quasi-incompressible soft solids. Results demonstrate that by applying a moderate static stress at the surface of the investigated medium, and by following the quantitative evolution of its shear modulus, it is possible to accurately and quantitatively recover the local Landau (A) coefficient characterizing the shear nonlinearity of soft tissues.     

基于链化分析的磁流变弹性体剪切模量模型

磁流变弹性体是一种磁流变材料,由高分子橡胶基体掺杂微米级的铁磁性颗粒固化而成.基于磁性物理学理论,从磁流变弹性体在磁场作用下铁磁性固体颗粒极化成链的微观结构出发,探讨磁流变流体中固体颗粒间的相互作用机理,分析研究颗粒间的相互作用力,建立了一种微观力学模型,可用于分析磁流变流体在外加磁场作用下剪切模量及其影响因素的作用效果,揭示磁流变效应的微结构机理,为磁流变弹性体的性能优化、工程开发及应用提供理论依据.     

Selection of an in-plane shear test method based on the shear sensitivity of laminate tensile modulus

The sensitivity of the tensile modulus for a number of Hercules AS4/3501-6 laminates to changes in the values of in-plane shear modulus was used to select the fibre orientations for four highly shear-sensitive laminates of the form [±θ₁,±θ₂]_3s. The in-plane shear moduli for the Hercules AS4/3501-6 composite material were then determined for 90° Iosipescu, 10° off-axis tensile and ±45° tensile specimens. These values were used with classical laminate plate theory to predict laminate tensile moduli. The best agreement between these predicted values and those which were experimentally measured was obtained when the ± 45° tensile test method was used to determine the in-plane shear modulus.     

Usefulness of ultrasonic strain measurement-based shear modulus reconstruction for diagnosis and thermal treatment

We previously reported an ultrasonic strain measurement-based one-dimensional (1-D) shear modulus reconstruction technique using a regularization method for differential diagnosis of malignancies on human superficial tissues (e.g., breast tissues). Here, ultrasonic strain measurement-based 2-D and 3-D shear modulus reconstruction techniques are described, and the 1-D technique is reviewed and subsequently applied to various human in vivo tissues, including deeply situated tissues (e.g., liver). Because soft tissues are deformed in 3-D space by externally situated arbitrary mechanical sources, the accuracy of the low-dimensional (i.e., 1-D or 2-D) reconstructions is lower to that of 3-D reconstruction due to occurrence of erroneous reconstruction artifacts (i.e., the reconstructed modulus is different than reality). These artifacts are confirmed on simulated inhomogeneous cubic phantoms containing a spherical homogenous inclusion using numerically calculated deformation data. The superiority of quasi-real-time imaging of the shear modulus is then demonstrated by comparing it with conventional B-mode imaging and strain imaging from the standpoints of monitoring the effectiveness of minimally invasive thermal therapy as well as differential diagnosis. Because the 2-D and 3-D techniques require special ultrasonic (US) equipment, the 1-D technique using conventional US imaging equipment is used, even though erroneous artifacts will occur. Specifically, the 1-D technique is applied as a diagnostic tool for differentiating malignancies in human in vivo liver and breast tissue, and a monitoring technique for determining the effectiveness of interstitial electromagnetic wave (micro and rf) thermal therapy on human in vivo liver and calf in vitro liver. Even when using the 1-D technique, reconstructed shear moduli were confirmed to be a suitable measure for monitoring thermal treatment as well as differential diagnosis. These results are encouraging in that they will promote use of 2-D and 3-D reconstruction techniques.     

3-D FDTD simulation of shear waves for evaluation of complex modulus imaging

The Navier equation describing shear wave propagation in 3-D viscoelastic media is solved numerically with a finite differences time domain (FDTD) method. Solutions are formed in terms of transverse scatterer velocity waves and then verified via comparison to measured wave fields in heterogeneous hydrogel phantoms. The numerical algorithm is used as a tool to study the effects on complex shear modulus estimation from wave propagation in heterogeneous viscoelastic media. We used an algebraic Helmholtz inversion (AHI) technique to solve for the complex shear modulus from simulated and experimental velocity data acquired in 2-D and 3-D. Although 3-D velocity estimates are required in general, there are object geometries for which 2-D inversions provide accurate estimations of the material properties. Through simulations and experiments, we explored artifacts generated in elastic and dynamic-viscous shear modulus images related to the shear wavelength and average viscosity.     

Application of 1-D transient elastography for the shear modulus assessment of thin-layered soft tissue: comparison with supersonic shear imaging technique

Elasticity estimation of thin-layered soft tissues has gained increasing interest propelled by medical applications like skin, corneal, or arterial wall shear modulus assessment. In this work, the authors propose one-dimensional transient elastography (1DTE) for the shear modulus assessment of thin-layered soft tissue. Experiments on three phantoms with different elasticities and plate thicknesses were performed. First, using 1DTE, the shear wave speed dispersion curve inside the plate was obtained and validated with finite difference simulation. No dispersive effects were observed and the shear wave speed was directly retrieved from time-of-flight measurements. Second, the supersonic shear imaging (SSI) technique (considered to be a gold standard) was performed. For the SSI technique, the propagating wave inside the plate is guided as a Lamb wave. Experimental SSI dispersion curves were compared with finite difference simulation and fitted using a generalized Lamb model to retrieve the plate bulk shear wave speed. Although they are based on totally different mechanical sources and induce completely different diffraction patterns for the shear wave propagation, the 1DTE and SSI techniques resulted in similar shear wave speed estimations. The main advantage of the 1DTE technique is that bulk shear wave speed can be directly retrieved without requiring a dispersion model.     

基于模量/应变波耦合特性的FBG碳纤维增强塑料复合材料拉伸断裂监测

从光纤Bragg光栅（FBG）反射中心波长随碳纤维增强塑料复合材料（CFRP）拉伸试件表面应变变化敏感特性的角度,详细研究了拉伸过程中FBG中心波长的拉伸变化速率（即CFRP的宏观弹性模量）与复合材料内部断裂饱和状态的相关性和断裂瞬间试件表面的应变波响应特性,即：在拉伸过程中,CFRP拉伸试件的宏观弹性模量随着内部断裂的发生而不断减小,且在试件出现明显应力松弛状态前趋于平稳;应力松弛状态出现时,断裂区域表面接收的应变波响应略大于其他区域。通过设计相应排布形式,将FBG与CFRP断裂监测相结合,提出了一种基于FBG传感的CFRP断裂分阶段监测方法。该方法中传感探头直接与CFRP试件耦合,测量及传导光路全光纤化,可实现对CFRP断裂状态的绝对监测。     

Monitoring of bitumen hardening with a non-destructive ultrasonic shear wave reflection technique

The article presents a possibility of using a non-destructive ultrasonic shear wave reflection technique for monitoring hardening process of bitumen. The technique relies on the use of a new measuring instrument called USWR-4 Hardening meter, which was developed to be applicable directly in situ and has been effectively used for cement-based materials so far. It works on the principle of continuous measurement of change of a shear wave reflection coefficient. Three different types of paving grade and two polymer-modified bitumens were used. Results show that the presented ultrasound technique can effectively track a temperature-dependent hardening process of bitumen.     

Effects of thermal histories on interfacial properties of carbon fiber/polyamide 6 composites: Thickness,modulus, adhesion and shear strength

Interface thickness and modulus of carbon fiber (CF) reinforced polyamide 6 (PA 6) composites with different thermal histories are characterized as 331–394 nm and 0.24–0.30 times to fiber modulus, respectively. Transverse fiber bundle (TFB) test is firstly employed for evaluating semi-crystalline PA 6 interfacial adhesion. TFB Failure mechanisms are schematically given. Besides enhanced molecular entangling on fiber surface, increased matrix toughness is also found to have a great effect on improved TFB results. Droplet micro-debonding results show that decreasing cooling rate and increasing annealing temperature both decrease interfacial shear strength (IFSS) though residual PA 6 on carbon fiber surface increases. In the end, the above data are normalized together with some previous measured parameters. It shows that quenching of the CF/PA 6 composites and subsequent annealing are shown to give similar results as slow cooling. Relationships between each other are also discussed.     

磁流变弹性体中铁磁颗粒尺寸大小随机分布下的磁致剪切模量的分析

考虑到磁流变弹性体内铁磁颗粒尺寸大小存在随机分布的现象,对磁流变弹性体的偶极子进行了修正,分析了不同尺寸铁磁颗粒混合的磁流变弹性体磁致剪切模量。该铁磁颗粒尺寸大小随机分布的修正模型不仅能够在单一粒径时退化为传统的偶极子模型,还可以对用不同尺寸的铁磁颗粒混合制备的磁流变弹性体磁致剪切模量的不均性予以预测,并对磁致剪切模量随夹杂铁磁颗粒的体积分数呈非线性变化予以了预测,相关结果与实验吻合较好。     

Characterization of plasma sprayed coatings using thermal wave infrared video imaging

A pulsed (time-domain) thermal wave infrared video imaging technique, using an IR camera, a video image processor, and a flash lamp, is described. This system is applied to the imaging of interfacial defects in plasma sprayed coatings on metallic substrates. Results are compared with the conventional point-scanned cw infrared thermal wave imaging technique.     

The effect of hydrogen on the shear modulus of polycrystalline aluminum

Electrolytic hydrogen saturation of polycrystalline aluminum leads to a significant (up to about 30%) decrease in the shear moduli G of samples. This change in G is accompanied neither by the loss of plasticity (no hydrogen-induced brittleness) nor by a change in the electric resistance (in contrast to that observed during the hydrogenation of typical hydride-forming metals and alloys, including those in the amorphous state).     

Transient processes in shear flows of viscoelastic fluids. I. Propagation of a shear wave

A theoretical investigation is made of the initial stage of a transient process in the shear flow of a viscoelastic fluid having a relaxation-time spectrum.Translated from Inzhenerno-Fizicheskii Zhurnal, Vol. 42, No. 6, pp. 992–1000, June, 1982.     

Frequency modulated thermal wave imaging for visualizing power density of electromagnetic waves on plane surfaces

In this article, Frequency Modulated Thermal Wave Imaging (FMTWI) [1–6] is introduced for the first time for determining power distribution of electromagnetic waves on plane surfaces. The advantage with this technique is that we can extract multiple amplitude and phase images from a single run of experiment. The applied excitation signal in this technique is a frequency modulated chirp signal instead of a single frequency signal used in conventional lock-in infrared (IR) thermography [7–11].

The thermal images obtained using FMTWI can be used qualitatively, e.g., to detect field leakage near electromagnetic junctions and microstrip feed lines. As a practical demonstration of this technique, an example of 2 × 2 patch antenna array at 8 GHz is considered. First, amplitude images at various modulation frequencies are obtained. Next, signal to noise ratio (SNR) values at each frequency are calculated. It is seen that SNR is lower at higher frequencies. It is observed that at higher modulation frequencies, micro-strip lines feeding the individual patch antennas of the array, are not visible in amplitude images, while at lower frequencies they are clearly visible

Mathematical modeling of the microwave absorption screen has also been carried out to show variations of incident, reflected, and transmitted powers as a function of screen surface impedance. It is also observed that the screen minimally perturbs the electromagnetic fields.     

基于干耦合横波超声换能器的钢丝长度检测及缺陷定位

在特定工况下会出现无法将超声换能器放置在杆状构件底面完成常规检测的问题,如服役桥梁的平行钢丝构件、装配式建筑中灌浆套筒内的插入钢筋。为了提高超声导波技术的适用性,提出了将频率为50 kHz的自发自收式干耦合横波超声换能器置于杆状钢丝侧面进行长度检测及缺陷定位的方法。结合理论分析、仿真模拟和试验验证开展研究,结果表明：干耦合横波超声换能器的最优激发角度为90°,即激发方向垂直钢丝轴向;对于不同长度和不同缺陷位置的钢丝,长度检测和缺陷定位的仿真及试验结果的预测相对误差均小于2%。     

Interfacial shear stress distribution in model composites: the effect of fibre modulus

The micromechanics of reinforcement have been investigated for a continuous intermediate-modulus (IM) carbon fibre embedded in an epoxy resin (MY-750). The embedded single-fibre (fragmentation) geometry was employed as the loading configuration. A laser Raman spectroscopic method was used to obtain the fibre strain distribution along the embedded fibre fragments, at various levels of applied strain. The interfacial shear stress distribution along the fibre was derived through a balance of forces analysis.A number of parameters, such as the maximum interfacial shear stress at each level of applied strain and the fibre debonded length, were evaluated. The maximum interfacial shear stress of the IM fibre system was found to increase by 80%, compared with the high-modulus fibre system examined previously, while the distance from the fibre end where the interfacial shear stress maximizes was significantly shorter. The debonded length was found to increase only marginally up to an applied strain of 1.8%, followed by a dramatic rate of increase between 1.8% and 2.5% of applied strain.