Finite element and experimental study on multiaxial fatigue analysis of rail clip failures

The rail clip fastening system is an important structural component of railway track systems providing flexibility and turnover resistance for running rails. High replacement frequency of fasteners was observed compared with other components because of fatigue failures of rail clips. In this study, implicit and explicit finite element (FE) models were developed for E‐clip and Fast‐clip with material and fatigue properties obtained from experimental testing. The fatigue loading experiments were conducted to determine the strain‐life relationship. The assessments of the fatigue damage and fatigue life were analysed using the FE results for the rail clip strain/stress components with the Fatemi‐Socie multiaxial fatigue criterion. A time‐efficient smallest enclosing circle algorithm was developed to search the critical plane orientation and the maximum shear strain amplitude for fatigue analysis. This work provides a method for FE and experimental study of multiaxial fatigue analysis of rail clip failures subjected to dynamic loading.     

Investigation of rolling contact fatigue cracks in a grade 900A rail steel of a metro track

Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) has been of increasing concern in the recent years in respect of the safe operation of high‐speed railway track with high traffic intensity. The present paper summarizes the results of the first investigation of RCF damage encountered in the Athens Metro. The objective of the investigation was to determine the initiation and propagation of RCF cracks and to determine their geometrical characteristics. A thorough metallographic investigation of track regarding shelling and spalling defects showed the development of a subsurface network of cracks. An analysis of the Hertzian stress field was used to determine the conditions for first yield and shakedown limits as a function of loading.     

A single parameter to evaluate stress state in rail head for rolling contact fatigue analysis

Based on the Smith‐Watson‐Topper (SWT) method, a phenomenological approach for multiaxial fatigue analysis, the maximum SWT parameter is proposed as a single parameter to evaluate the stress state in the rail head for assessing the fatigue integrity of the structure. A numerical procedure to calculate the maximum SWT parameter from a finite element analysis is presented and applied in a case study, where the stress and strain fields due to wheel/rail rolling contact are obtained from a three‐dimensional finite element simulation with the steady‐state transport analysis technique. The capability of the SWT method to predict fatigue crack initiation in the rail head is confirmed in the case study. Analogous to von Mises stress for strength analysis, the maximum SWT parameter can be applied to evaluate the fatigue loading state not only in rail head due to rolling contact fatigue but also in a generic structure subjected to a cyclic loading.     

Investigation of rolling contact crack initiation in bainitic and pearlitic rail steels

The stress–strain history and the crack initiation lives of bainitic and head‐hardened pearlitic rail steels were determined under rolling contact loading by implementing the semi‐analytical Jiang–Sehitoglu rolling contact model that incorporates both ratchetting and multiaxial fatigue damage. The calculations revealed that the bainitic steel withstands higher loads than the pearlitic steel at low shear tractions, however; both materials behave in an increasingly similar manner as the shear tractions increase. Furthermore, maximum damage occurs in both steels when ratchetting and fatigue damage coincide on the surface. In addition to shedding light on the rolling contact fatigue (RCF) performance of bainitic and pearlitic rail steels, the current work also establishes a methodology for the realistic prediction of crack initiation under RCF.     

考虑轮轨材料等效疲劳损伤车轮扁疤引起的轮轨冲击力学响应

车轮扁疤是车轮踏面缺陷常见形式之一,会产生较大的轮轨冲击,影响列车运行的平稳性和安全性.该研究建立了三维轮轨滚动接触有限元模型,采用显式有限元法研究了车轮扁疤引起的轮轨冲击力学响应,描述了车轮扁疤冲击钢轨整个过程中轮轨接触状态的变化,着重分析了轮轨材料疲劳损伤与应变率效应对轮轨冲击响应的影响,并讨论了列车速度、扁疤长度...     

Fatigue analysis of railway wheel using a multiaxial strain‐based critical‐plane index

A fatigue damage model to assess the development of subsurface fatigue cracks in railway wheels is presented in this paper. A 3‐dimensional finite element model (FEM) is constructed to simulate repeated cycles of contact loading between a railway wheel and a rail. The computational approach includes a hard‐contact over‐closure relationship and an elastoplastic material model with isotropic and kinematic hardening. Results from the simulation are used in a multiaxial critical‐plane fatigue damage analysis. The employed strain‐based critical‐plane fatigue damage approach is based on Fatemi‐Socie fatigue index that takes into account the non‐proportional and out‐of‐phase nature of the multiaxial state of stress occurs when a railway wheel rolls on a rail. It predicts fatigue‐induced micro‐crack nucleation at a depth of about 3.7 mm beneath the wheel tread, as well as the crack plane growth orientation which indicates the possible failure pattern. Additionally, the influence of various factors such as contribution of normal stresses, higher wheel load, and material model have been investigated.     

Finite-element analysis of fatigue crack closure under plane strain conditions: stabilization behaviour and mesh size effect

An elastic–plastic finite‐element analysis of fatigue crack closure is performed for plane strain conditions. The stabilization behaviour of crack opening level and the effect of mesh size on the crack opening stress are investigated. It has been well reported that the crack opening level under plane stress conditions becomes stable after the crack advances beyond the initial monotonic plastic zone. In order to obtain a stabilized crack opening level for plane strain conditions, the crack must be advanced through approximately four times the initial monotonic plastic zone. The crack opening load tends to increase with the decrease of mesh size. The mesh size nearly equal to the theoretical plane strain cyclic plastic zone size may provide reasonable numerical results comparable with experimental crack opening data. The crack opening behaviour is influenced by the crack growth increment and discontinuous opening behaviour is observed.     

Image analysis to reveal crack development using a computer simulation of wear and rolling contact fatigue

Plastic flow of near‐surface rail material under contact loading is a feature of rail–wheel contact, and severe flow typically leads to both wear, and the initiation and development of small surface‐breaking cracks. This paper presents results from a ratcheting based computer simulation, which has been developed to allow the simultaneous investigation of wear, crack initiation and early crack propagation. To identify repeatably small crack‐like flaws, image analysis is applied to the visual representation of the wearing surface generated by the model. This representation shows a good similarity to traditional micrographs taken from sections of worn surfaces. The model clearly reveals the interaction of wear with crack development, processes which are linked because wear truncates surface‐breaking cracks, and can completely remove small surface‐breaking cracks.     

Contact stress and residual stress in the nose rail of a high manganese steel crossing due to wheel contact loading

Fatigue failure of a high manganese steel crossing is related to its internal crack initiation and growth, which is affected significantly by the magnitude and distribution pattern of contact stress and residual stress in the crossing. Considering the actual service conditions of a crossing and the accuracy requirement for numerical calculation, a whole model of wheel/crossing/ties and a partial model of wheel/crossing are established using elastic‐plastic finite element method. The distributions of contact stress fields and residual stress fields due to wheel contact loading are studied. The effect of train speed on the residual stress in the nose rail is discussed. The contact stress field shows regular contours in the cross‐section of nose rail and decreases remarkably with increasing distance of the wheel‐crossing contact position. The maximum contact stress is located at the contact surface between wheel and crossing. The maximum residual stress is located at a position of 1.5‐2.0 mm below the surface of the nose rail, rather than at the contact surface of wheel and crossing. In a failed high manganese steel crossing, the dense cracks mainly were observed neither at the position of maximum contact stress (the contact surface between the wheel and the crossing), nor at the position of maximum residual stress (1.5‐2.0 mm below the surface of the nose rail), but around the depth of 0.8‐1.0 mm from the worn surface, which is between the position of maximum contact stress and the position of maximum residual stress. It indicates that the combined effects of the maximum contact stress and the maximum residual stress play important roles in fatigue crack initiation in the nose rail. The size of high residual stress region increases with the increase of the train speed. The maximum residual stress in the nose rail increases remarkably with the increase of the train speed.     

Roles of microstructure,inclusion, and surface roughness on rolling contact fatigue of a wind turbine gear

Contact fatigue is a key feature limiting the service lives and reliabilities of gears. The gear contact fatigue failure mechanism has not been understood fundamentally due to the complexities of structural factors, material properties, and operating conditions. In this work, an integrated finite element model of a megawatt level wind turbine gear is established considering the real gear geometry, material microstructure heterogeneity, existence of nonmetallic inclusion, and the tooth surface roughness. The gear steel material properties are defined based on the crystal elasticity anisotropy framework. The modified Dang Van multiaxial criterion is utilized to estimate the material fatigue failure probability during gear engagement. With the developed model, the roles of microstructure, inclusion, and surface roughness on the gear contact fatigue behaviour are comparatively investigated. Additionally, the influences of different inclusion size and surface roughness profile on gear failure risk are investigated and discussed in detail.     

Computation of limit and shakedown loads using a node‐based smoothed finite element method

This paper presents a novel numerical procedure for computing limit and shakedown loads of structures using a node‐based smoothed FEM in combination with a primal–dual algorithm. An associated primal–dual form based on the von Mises yield criterion is adopted. The primal‐dual algorithm together with a Newton‐like iteration are then used to solve this associated primal–dual form to determine simultaneously both approximate upper and quasi‐lower bounds of the plastic collapse limit and the shakedown limit. The present formulation uses only linear approximations and its implementation into finite element programs is quite simple. Several numerical examples are given to show the reliability, accuracy, and generality of the present formulation compared with other available methods. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Integration of multi‐step stamping effects in the bending fatigue analysis of a steel wheel

Bending fatigue prediction accuracy of steel wheel can hardly be guaranteed without clearly understanding the influence of stamping process on fatigue. In this research, multi‐step stamping processes of spoke were analysed by different finite element simulation techniques. Major influences of stamping process on fatigue property were distinguished. Data‐mapping technique was used to transfer information between stamping and fatigue analysis models. Difference material experiments were carried out to research the influence of prestrain on material properties. Modified E‐N function was established according to the theoretical analysis and material experiment results. Bending fatigue finite element simulation was carried out, and result matched experiment well both in position and cycle life.     

往复式压缩机振动的有限元数值分析与实验研究

摘 要：对某型往复式冰箱压缩机的振动进行了有限元数值模拟,研究了曲轴-连杆-活塞运动系统产生的机械激励引起的压缩机振动响应。研究表明,曲轴-连杆-活塞运动系统是压缩机低频振动的主要激励来源,气体力主要引起压缩机泵体的水平扭转振动。通过仿真结果和试验的对比,验证了数值模拟方法应用于压缩机振动响应分析的可行性。通过数值模拟,可得到机械激励引起的壳体表面振速分布,为压缩机的机械噪声预测提供参考。     

Influence of inclusion content on rolling contact fatigue in a gear steel: Experimental analysis and predictive modelling

Rolling contact fatigue tests were carried out on ring specimens made of quenched and tempered SAE 5135 gear steel with three different steel-production processes, through a bi-disc machine under pure rolling condition and water lubrication. Early formation of micro-pits then coalescing into macro-pits was observed on the rolling surface, while the final failure was caused by subsurface originated spalling phenomena. Microscope analysis of specimens section highlighted the complex surface and subsurface crack layout, and permitted to recognise sulphides as preferential sites for cracks initiation. The inclusion content was analysed throughout the extreme value statistics and the maximum expected inclusion in the Hertzian contact zone was introduced in a failure assessment diagram recently proposed, which resulted effective in predicting the specimen failures.     

Wear behaviour and rolling contact fatigue life of Ti/TiN/DLC multilayer films fabricated on bearing steel by PIIID

In order to improve the friction and wear behaviours and rolling contact fatigue (RCF) life of bearing steel materials, Ti/TiN/DLC (diamond-like carbon) multilayer hard films were fabricated onto AISI52100 bearing steel surface by plasma immersion ion implantation and deposition (PIIID) technique. The micro-Raman spectroscopy analysis confirms that the surface film layer possess the characteristic of diamond-like carbon, and it is composed of a mixture of amorphous and crystalline phases, with a variable ratio of sp²/sp³ carbon bonds. Atomic force microscope (AFM) reveals that the multilayer films have extremely smooth area, excellent adhesion, high uniformity and efficiency of space filling over large areas. The nanohardness (H) and elastic modulus (E) measurement indicates that the H and E of DLC multilayer films is about 32 GPa and 410 GPa, increases by 190.9% and 86.4%. The friction and wear behaviours and RCF life of DLC multilayer films specimen have also been investigated by ball-on-disc and three-ball-rod fatigue testers. Results show that the friction coefficient against AISI52100 steel ball decreases from 0.92 to 0.25, the longest wear life increases nearly by 22 times. In addition, wear tracks of the PIIID samples as well as wear tracks of the sliding steel ball were analyzed with the help of optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The L₁₀, L₅₀, L_a and mean RCF life L of treated bearing samples, in 90% confidence level, increases by 10.1, 4.2, 3.5 and 3.4 times, respectively. Compared with the bearing steel substrate, the RCF life scatter extent of Ti/TiN/DLC multilayer films sample is improved obviously.     

运营状态下悬索桥钢桥面板疲劳效应监测与分析

基于润扬大桥悬索桥7个月的长期疲劳效应监测结果,建立了铺装层-钢桥面板一体化疲劳分析模型,并研究了两类关键焊接细节的疲劳效应与车流量、环境温度间的相关性关系。结果表明,两类焊接细节的应力循环次数与车流量线性相关而与环境温度无关,等效应力幅与环境温度线性相关而与车流量无关。由疲劳设计指南推荐的疲劳效应计算模型得到的应力循环次数较监测结果偏低,顶板-纵肋焊接细节的等效应力幅与监测结果吻合良好而纵肋对接焊接细节的结果较为保守。上述分析结果为疲劳设计指南的进一步改进和完善提供参考和依据。     

东露天选煤厂槽仓高边坡稳定性与变形分析

平朔东露天槽仓为目前亚洲最大规模的储煤槽仓。采用极限平衡方法和有限元法,开展了边坡在支护前后不同工况下的稳定性计算和应力与变形分析。结果表明,边坡支护前无法达到使用要求,斜壁与直壁转角处和仓底坡脚处为应力集中和变形最大处,是加固的重点部位。边坡采用土钉墙复合结构和灌注桩+钢内撑复合结构支护后,稳定性满足使用要求,变形在正常范围内,该支护方案非常适合该边坡。     

非均匀流条件下穿孔管消声器传递损失计算方法与特性分析

实际应用中的消声器通常具有比较复杂的内部结构,其内部流体速度分布不均匀,而且消声器内部的回流管路和穿孔元件使得消声器内部的流体流动更加复杂,其消声性能不可避免地受到流体流动的影响。为了计算非均匀流条件下穿孔管消声器的传递损失,应用计算流体力学(Computational Fluid Dynamics, CFD)软件FLUENT计算消声器内部的流场,然后将流体属性通过网格映射的方式转移到LMS Virtual Lab声学有限元模型中,并且选用不同的穿孔阻抗模型计算消声器的传递损失,计算结果与实验测量结果进行了比较。文章对消声器内部流场的流动特征也做了仔细地分析,并研究了气体流速对消声器传递损失的影响,随着气体流速的增加,消声器的传递损失会增大,共振峰的峰值会减小。     

波谱单元法在空间桁架地震响应分析中的应用

摘 要：针对传统波谱单元法（SEM）只能用于求解节点集中荷载作用下结构动力响应问题的不足,提出了一种通过计算地震等效波谱节点荷载求解桁架结构地震响应的方法。基于虚功原理,利用波谱形函数积分得到地震等效波谱节点荷载的显式表达式,通过修改波谱单元法中单元刚度矩阵的波数,考虑了阻尼对结构动力特征的影响,采用数值拉普拉斯（Laplace）变换替换快速傅立叶（FFT）变换,回避了传统波谱单元法中FFT的周期性问题。利用地震荷载等效后的波谱节点荷载对三维空间桁架结构进行地震响应分析,结果表明,采用本文的方法能方便的计算桁架结构的地震等效波谱节点荷载,精确求解结构的地震响应,与传统有限元法（FEM）相比,大大减少计算单元数量,提高计算精度,且便于编程计算。