Galerkin finite-element simulation of a geothermal reservoir

The equations describing fluid flow and energy transport in a porous medium can be used to formulate a mathematical model capable of simulating the transient response of a hot-water geothermal reservoir. The resulting equations can be solved accurately and efficiently using a numerical scheme which combines the finite element approach with the Galerkin method of approximation. Application of this numerical model to the Wairakei geothermal field demonstrates that hot-water geothermal fields can be simulated using numerical techniques currently available and under development.     

Simulation of propagating fronts in geothermal reservoirs with the implicit Leonard total variation diminishing scheme

Geothermal reservoir engineering requires accurate numerical solution of the advective–diffusive transport equations for strong advective flows of multiphase nonisothermal fluids. Conventional interface weighting schemes such as upstream weighting cause numerical dispersion. Numerical dispersion can be reduced by grid refinement, but this increases execution times and computer memory requirements. As an alternative, higher-order differencing schemes can be used to reduce numerical dispersion, but they often lead to spurious oscillations. These limitations have led to the development of higher-order schemes called total variation diminishing (TVD) schemes. For geothermal reservoir engineering, these schemes must be capable of handling flows that may not be physically total variation diminishing. We have implemented TVD schemes into the implicit geothermal reservoir simulator TOUGH2. We verify the Leonard TVD (LTVD) scheme by comparison to an analytical solution for two-dimensional flow and transport. The LTVD scheme reduces numerical dispersion for tracer transport in a two-phase geothermal reinjection problem. One-dimensional simulations show that the LTVD scheme works well even if the saturation variation increases with time. Because the location of the phase front is strongly coupled to temperature, phase front propagation is sensitive to grid resolution insofar as it affects the temperature field. Phase front propagation in a composite porous medium Buckley–Leverett flow problem, where phase saturations increase upon encountering a second medium, are slightly more accurate for the LTVD scheme as compared to upstream weighting. We find that the LTVD scheme only performs well if the weighting and limiter are applied to saturation rather than to relative permeability. While there is some increased computational cost with the LTVD scheme due to increased linear equation solution time and smaller time-step size, the LTVD scheme is a practical and robust method for reducing numerical dispersion in complex flow problems relevant to geothermal reservoir engineering.     

Prospects for geothermal energy applications and utilization in Canada

Like the sun, the earth is a vast energy source. The utilization of this geothermal furnace is still in its infancy, the heat flow from the mantle to the surface (9 × 10⁻¹ cal/cm²/min; 0.063 W/m²) is the energy equivalent to 2 × 10¹¹ barrels of oil per yr (3 × 10¹⁰ tons or about fourfold greater than the present yearly total world energy consumption). Although today only local hot spots yielding dry and wet steam, and shallow hot-water sites are used economically, future technology may well lead to a much greater utilization. This will be done through additional imaginative and sophisticated exploitation of available regions of dry hot rock, geopressure-geothermal fields, and even deep areas of significant heat flow. Such potential utilization of geothermal resources should provide for relatively pollution-free, steam-generated electrical power, steam and hot-water for home and industry, mineral and chemical by-products, as well as numerous uses where hot water is required in agriculture, horticulture, fisheries, mining, pulp and paper and other industries. Canadian developments in these areas are still relatively dormant. The problem areas are not of a technological nature but rather of an institutional type in passing a geothermal act that would provide the incentives for exploration and economical development.     

Coupled reservoir-wellbore simulation of geothermal reservoir behavior

The reservoir simulator TOUGH and the wellbore simulator WFSA have been coupled to model flow of geothermal brine in the reservoir as well as in the wellbore. An outline of the structure of the two computer codes is given, together with the relevant equations. A new module, COUPLE, has been written to serve as an interface between TOUGH and WFSA. Two sample problems are given to illustrate the use of the coupled codes. One of these problems compares the results of the new simulation method to those obtained by using the deliverability option in TOUGH. The coupled computing procedure is shown to simulate more accurately the behavior of a geothermal reservoir under exploitation.     

地热资源的开发利用及可持续发展

地热资源作为一种新型能源矿产,具有分布广泛、易于开发等特点,其利用方式主要有地热发电和地热直接利用两种.我国具有良好的地热资源条件,主要为中低温地热资源.据计算,我国12个主要沉积盆地的地热可开采资源量为7500×1018J,相当于2560×108t标煤.当前,我国地热资源利用方式主要以供暖、洗浴、种植等直接利用为主;地热发电发展缓慢,主要分布在西藏;利用热泵技术开发地热资源得到了快速发展;油区地热资源的开发利用也取得了良好的经济和社会效益.但同时我国地热资源产业也面临着一些问题,包括大部分地区尚未开展地热资源勘查评价,影响了地热资源规划的制订及地热产业的发展;防腐、防垢技术还需要进一步加强研究;地热回灌率普遍过低;增强型地热系统研究有待加强等.为了促进地热资源的可持续发展,建议在加大地热资源勘查力度的同时,应以浅层地温能和热水型地热资源为主,发挥热泵技术的优势,开展地热资源的综合利用及梯级利用;重视和加快油气区地热资源的利用;在西藏等适宜地区加大高温地热能发电利用;集中全国优势技术力量,在一两个有利区域开展增强型地热系统技术探索;此外,走回灌开发道路是地热资源开发利用的必然选择.     

Optimization of downhole pump setting depths in liquid-dominated geothermal systems: A case study on the Balcova-Narlidere field,Turkey

Downhole pumps are being used increasingly more often in low-enthalpy geothermal wells. The depth at which these pumps are installed depends on the physical and chemical characteristics of the geothermal fluid, the production flow rate, and the reservoir pressure and permeability. In this study we have investigated the factors affecting pump setting depths in low-temperature, liquid-dominated geothermal systems and defined the relationship between flow rate and pressure drawdown based on multi-rate test results. The methodology proposed was applied to the Balcova-Narlidere geothermal field, Turkey. It was found that the most important parameters for determining the capacity and setting depth of a downhole pump were flow performance, non-condensable gas concentration, and temperature. The implementation of the methodology is illustrated.     

Heating of a fish wintering pond using low-temperature geothermal fluids,Porto Lagos,Greece

Low-enthalpy geothermal fluids are being used in Porto Lagos, Greece, to prevent freezing in an open (uncovered) pond connected to the sea where various fish species spend the winter. Despite the low temperature of the fluids and the moderate flow, the system proved to be satisfactory, increasing the pond temperature by more than 5 °C. This prevented the formation of an ice layer on the surface of the pond that would otherwise have caused a massive reduction in the fish population, as has happened in the past.A numerical model was developed and validated to simulate the thermal behavior of an open pond, based on hourly temperature measurements collected from various depths and at various sites in the pond during the last heating period. The simulator was subsequently applied to the evaluation of various alternative scenarios of exploitation. The hourly pond and ambient temperatures were also correlated in such a way as to obtain a semi-empirical expression for the heat losses from the pond and to estimate the time response of the system, so as to regulate the flow of geothermal fluids into the pond.     

Hydrothermal metamorphism in the Larderello geothermal field

The various tectonic units underlying the Larderello — Travale geothermal region have undergone hydrothermal metamorphism. The hydrothermal mineral assemblages are generally consistent with the temperatures now measured in the wells, leading to the hypothesis that solid phases deposited from a liquid medium during a hot-water stage that preceded the vapour-dominated one.     

In situ upgrading of oil shale by Steamfrac in multistage transverse fractured horizontal well system

We conduct numerical simulations of kerogen pyrolysis by the in situ upgrading process of Steamfrac, which entails the steam or hot-water injection into multistage transverse fractured horizontal well systems, by using a fully functional simulator developed to describe the in situ upgrading process. We first conduct simulation cases of a huff-n-puff method to analyze the sensitivity of temperature distribution of the reservoir to the positions of horizontal wells. Then, we conduct continuous hot-water injection and simultaneous fluid production cases, and analyze the productivity by applying two different irreducible saturations of aqueous phase in the rock matrix.     

Application of the computer code TOUGH2 to the simulation of supercritical conditions in geothermal systems

At the high pressures and temperatures found in deep geothermal systems, supercritical conditions can occur. Current numerical geothermal simulators are either not capable of modelling these conditions, or can do so only at significantly reduced computation speed. This paper describes modifications to the TOUGH2 simulator to extend its applicability. It employs the updated IAPWS-97 thermodynamic formulation, and uses density and temperature as primary thermodynamic variables under supercritical conditions. Results from test problems are in agreement with results produced by other simulators, giving confidence that the simulator can be used for modelling deep geothermal reservoirs.     

Pressure analysis of the hydromechanical fracture behaviour in stimulated tight sedimentary geothermal reservoirs

Hydromechanical phenomena in fractured sediments are complex. They control the flow in stimulated tight sediments and are crucial for the exploitation of geothermal energy from such rocks. We present the analysis of a cyclic water injection/production (huff–puff) process, a promising method to extract geothermal energy from tight sedimentary reservoirs. It uses a single borehole, which considerably reduces investment costs. A huff–puff test was performed in a 3800-m deep sedimentary formation (borehole Horstberg Z1, Lower Saxony, Germany). The analysis presented herein explains the downhole pressure measurements by a simplified reservoir model containing a single vertical fracture. The model addresses the flow behaviour between the fracture and the rock matrix in a layered formation, and the coupling between fluid flow and the mechanical deformation of the fracture. The latter aspect is relevant to predict the efficiency of the geothermal reservoir because cooled regions resulting from a particular injection/production scheme can be identified. The analysis methods include: (1) the curve-fitting code ODA used for a determination of different flow regimes (radial or linear), (2) an analytical solution for the calculation of the injection pressure, assuming a time-dependent fracture area, and (3) the simulator ROCMAS, which numerically solves the coupling between fluid flow and fracture deformation. Whereas each single approach is insufficient to explain the complete test data, a combination of the results yields an understanding of the flow regimes taking place during the test.     

循环流化床全工况实时动态数学模型的研究

在详细分析影响循环流化床动态特性的主导过程－动态物料平衡,进风量与炉膛压降耦合,动态碳质量平衡和动态能量平衡的基础上,建立了以一套机理动态方程描述循环流化床启动、停机、事故和正常运行全工况过程的数学模型。提炼了流化床关键参数的主导因素,并确立了这些主导因素与负荷工况的作用关系,从而解决了培训仿真机研制中模型运算速度以及多工况数据的精确吻合问题。该模型在我国第一台全工况循环流化床锅炉电站培训仿真机中     

太阳能集热系统在印染行业的应用

印染是高耗能企业,每年消耗大量蒸汽生产热水。为了减少企业能耗,以某印染厂为例利用太阳能替代部分蒸汽生产热水。结果表明:4 320 m2的太阳能集热系统可生产热水60 000t/a,节约蒸汽3 900 t/a,节约运行成本40.9万元/a,回收期4.6年。同时,对主要的纺织印染城市的太阳能资源研究分析发现:在浙江、江苏、山东等区域,太阳能集热系统的最长回收期不超过6.5年,具有较好的经济和环境效益。     

Possibilities of electricity generation in the Republic of Croatia by means of geothermal energy

In the Republic of Croatia there are some medium temperature geothermal sources by means of which it is possible to produce electricity. However, only recently concrete initiatives for the construction of geothermal power plants have been started. Consequently, the paper provides proposals of the possible cycles for the Republic of Croatia. On the example of the most prospective geothermal source in the Republic of Croatia detailed analysis for the proposed energy conversion cycles is performed: for Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) and Kalina cycle. On the basis of analysis results both the most suitable cycle for selected and for other geothermal sources in the Republic of Croatia are proposed. It is ORC which in case of the most prospective geothermal source in the Republic of Croatia has better both the thermal efficiency (the First Law efficiency) and the exergetic efficiency (the Second Law efficiency): 14.1% vs. 10.6% and 52% vs. 44%. The ORC gives net power of 5270 kW with mass flow rate 80.13 kg/s, while the Kalina cycle gives net power of 3949 kW with mass flow rate 35.717 kg/s.     

Gases in steam from Cerro Prieto geothermal wells with a discussion of steam/gas ratio measurements

As part of a joint USGS-CFE geochemical study of Cerro Prieto, steam samples were collected for gas analyses in April, 1977. Analyses of the major gas components of the steam were made by wet chemistry (for H₂O,CO₂,H₂S and NH₃) and by gas chromatography (He,H₂,Ar,O₂,N₂ and hydrocarbons).The hydrocarbon gases in Cerro Prieto steam closely resemble hydrocarbons in steam from Larderello, Italy and The Geysers, California which, although they are vapor-dominated rather than hot-water geothermal systems, also have sedimentary aquifer rocks. These sedimentary geothermal hydrocarbons are characterized by the presence of branched C_4–6 compounds and a lack of unsaturated compounds other than benzene. Relatively large amounts of benzene may be characteristic of high-temperature geothermal systems. All hydrocarbons in these gases other than methane most probably originate from the thermal metamorphosis of organic matter contained in the sediments.     

A comparison of economic evaluation models as applied to geothermal energy technology

Several cost estimation and financial cash flow models have been applied to a series of geothermal case studies. In order to draw conclusions about relative performance and applicability of these models to geothermal projects, the consistency of results was assessed. The model outputs of principal interest in this study were net present value, internal rate of return, or levelized breakeven price. The models used were VENVAL, a DuPont, Inc. venture analysis model; the Geothermal Probabilistic Cost Model (GPC Model) and the Alternative Power Systems Economic Analysis Model (APSEAM), which were developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL); the MITRE Corporation's Geothermal Loan Guarantee Cash Flow Model (GCFM); and the GEOCOST and GEOCITY geothermal models developed by Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories. The case studies to which the models were applied include a geothermal reservoir at Heber, CA; a geothermal electric power plant to be located at the Heber site; an alcohol fuels production facility to be built at Raft River, ID; and a direct-use, district heating system in Susanville, CA.     

Exergy,exergoeconomic and multi-objective optimization of a clean hydrogen and electricity production using geothermal-driven energy systems

In this research paper, comprehensive thermodynamic modeling of an integrated energy system consisting of a multi-effect desalination system, geothermal energy system, and hydrogen production unit is considered and the system performance is investigated. The system's primary fuel is a geothermal two-phase flow. The system consists of a single flash steam-based power system, ORC, double effect water–lithium bromide absorption cooling system, PEM electrolyzer, and MED with six effects. The effect of numerous design parameters such as geothermal temperature and pressure on the net power of steam turbine and ORC cycle, the cooling capacity of an absorption chiller, the amount of produced hydrogen in PEM electrolyzer, the mass flow rate of distillate water from MED and the total cost rate of the system are studied. The simulation is carried out by both EES and Matlab software. The results indicate the key role of geothermal temperature and show that both total exergy efficiency and total cost rate of the system elevate with increasing geothermal temperature. Also, the impact of changing absorption chiller parameters like evaporator and absorber temperatures on the COP and GOR of the system is investigated. Since some of these parameters have various effects on cost and efficiency as objective functions, a multi-objective optimization is applied based on a Genetic algorithm for this system and a Pareto-Frontier diagram is presented. The results show that geothermal main temperature has a significant effect on both system exergy efficiency and cost of the system. An increase in this temperature from 260 C to 300 C can increase the exergy efficiency of the system for an average of 12% at various working pressure and also increase the cost of the system by 13%.     

Hg anomalies in soils: A geochemical exploration method for geothermal areas

Hg contents of soils in geothermal areas in the western U.S. were measured and a three-fold distribution was observed: peak, aureole and background. Peak values (up to several 100 ppm Hg) occur in fumaroles of vapour-dominated systems, around hot springs, and in zones overlying steeply dipping, hot-water aquifers. Aureoic values (up to several 100 ppb Hg) are found in zones surrounding the peak areas and delineate areas with shallow geothermal convection. Background values vary between 7 and 40 ppb Hg (geometric mean). Usually, Hg is present in a form that can be easily re-volatilized and released to the atmosphere. Altered areas related to fossil hydrothermal systems can be distinguished from alteration related to active systems by their Hg contents. In the rare cases of Hg enrichments as cinnabar or as traces in other sulphides (pyrite, sphalerite) the Hg is not easily released from its host phase, and distinction between active and fossil systems is not possible. Hg anomaly patterns yield information on the presence as well as the geometry of shallow geothermal circulation patterns. In conjunction with structural geologic data, Hg patterns can be helpful in defining reservoir boundaries and can aid in the selection of drill site location.     

Mathematical modelling of non-isothermal silica transport and deposition in a porous medium

The problem of transport and deposition of silica in non-isothermal flows, either in a porous medium or a single fracture, is investigated. Analytic solutions are obtained using the method of characteristics for both the one-dimensional problem of constant rate injection into a channel or packed column and the radially symmetric problem of the flow away from a reinjection well. Silica deposition is represented by a first order rate equation. Studies on the temperature effects of reinjection into a hot or cold reservoir are undertaken using the one-dimensional model. The strong dependence of the rate of silica deposition on temperature is confirmed by the model. The radial flow model is applied to some field data from the Otake geothermal field, Japan. The model produces a good match to the permeability decline observed in the wells. Mathematical models of silica deposition resulting from non-isothermal flow in a single fracture are successfully tested against some previously reported numerical results.     

Brine and gas recovery from geopressured systems

A series of parametric calculations was run with the geopressured—geothermal simulator MUSHRM to assess the effects of important formation, fluid and well parameters on brine and gas recovery from geopressured reservoir systems. The specific parameters considered are formation permeability, pore-fluid salinity, temperature and gas content, well radius and location with respect to reservoir boundaries, desired flow rate, and possible shale recharge. It was found that the total brine and gas recovered (as a fraction of the resource in situ) were most sensitive to formation permeability, pore-fluid gas content and shale recharge.