Teaching preschool children with disabilities to respond to the lures of strangers

An investigation was conducted to determine the effectiveness of a constant-time-delay procedure used in combination with multiple exemplars of strangers, lures, and sites to teach a generalized response to the lures of strangers to four preschool children with disabilities. Although the correct response was quickly acquired in the training site, the response failed to generalize to the probe sites until training was conducted in vivo. Instruction in vivo resulted in acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of the response to strangers' lures. Generalization occurred across probes with novel exemplars of lures, strangers, and sites.     

Responses to quantity: Perceptual versus cognitive mechanisms in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).

Two chimpanzees were trained to select among 2 different amounts of candy (1–6 items). The task was designed so that selection of either array by the active (selector) chimpanzee resulted in that array being given to the passive (observer) animal, with the remaining (nonselected) array going to the selector. Neither animal was able to select consistently the smaller array, which would reap the larger reward. Rather, both animals preferentially selected the larger array, thereby receiving the smaller number of reinforcers. When Arabic numerals were substituted for the food arrays, however, the selector animal evidenced more optimal performance, immediately selecting the smaller numeral and thus receiving the larger reward. These findings suggest that a basic predisposition to respond to the perceptual motivational features of incentive stimuli can interfere with task performance and that this interference can be overridden when abstract symbols serve as choice stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The pathology of viral hepatitis types A and B in chimpanzees. A comparison

The histologic manifestations in the livers of chimpanzees inoculated with hepatitis A and B virus were compared with each other and correlated with biochemical, serologic, and virologic observations. Both types of hepatitis reveal alterations similar to those seen in human hepatitis, but the lesions--particularly the hepatocellular necrosis--are far milder. Hepatitis Type A in chimpanzees is a disease of short incubation period and duration. The hepatocytic alterations are mainly restricted to the periportal areas, and the parenchymal changes are less severe than the portal inflammation. The lesions correlated well with biochemical changes, the presence of virus in the liver, and its shedding in the stool. In contrast, experimental Type B hepatitis has a long incubation period and longer duration, involves the entire lobular parenchyma, and is, if anything, more severe in the lobular centers while portal inflammation is less conspicuous. Biochemical alterations and presence of virus in the liver correlate with these lesions, and the antibody response is similar to that seen in man. The chimpanzee is a useful model for studying the pathogenesis of viral hepatitis; additional study of serial morphologic events may contribute to our understanding of the clinical differences between hepatitis Type A and Type B.     

Dorsal horn cells that respond to stimulation of distant dorsal roots

Experiments were carried out to find if there were post-synaptic effects produced by impulses in the long ranging primary afferents, which had been shown by Wall & Werman (1976) to extend from upper lumbar dorsal roots to the sacral segments. Dorsal rootlets were stimulated in decerebrate low-spinal adult cats.1. The dorsal root potential and ventral root reflex were recorded on S1 root filaments, in response to stimulation of dorsal rootlets extending from L1 to S1. With increasing distance between stimulating and recording segments, these potentials became smaller and more delayed. In two animals, there was no response at S1 to stimulation of L1 and L2 dorsal roots.2. In all animals, stimulation of L3 or L4 dorsal roots produced cell responses in dorsal horn segments L7 or S1. The density of such cells was variable, from animal to animal. Responding cells were mainly concentrated laterally in the dorsal horn.3. The latency and response variability of L7-S1, dorsal horn cells to L3-L4 stimulation was consistent with at least some of them being fired monosynaptically.4. Cells that respond to stimulation of one distant rootlet respond to many closer rootlets as well.5. The receptive fields of L7-S1 dorsal horn cells, responsive to stimulation of L3-L4 rootlets, were typical of those generally found in the L7-S1 segments, and were at some distance from the L4 dermatome. Only twenty cells had receptive fields which extended into the dermatome of the rootlets stimulated.6. It was established that some L4 cells respond to S1 dorsal root stimulation, just as the main study had shown that S1 responds to L4.7. It is concluded that substantial numbers of dorsal horn cells, including cells with many types of cutaneous receptive field, respond to two classes of synaptic in-put: one effective in firing the cell upon natural cutaneous stimulation, and one relatively ineffective, capable of driving the cell only when stimulated electrically and thus carrying a synchronous volley from a number of highly convergent axons. The contribution of this secondary afferent channel to normal and pathological cord physiology has now to be determined.     

A comparison of physicians who did or did not respond to a postal questionnaire.

Responses were received from 80.4% of 997 male physicians and 82.8% of 122 female physicians; the sex difference was not significant. Relationships to willingness to reply were examined in regard to family background, medical school academic performance, age, year of graduation, and scales on the Adjective Check List, the California Psychological Inventory, and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank. Only 12 of the 128 quantified variables produced significant differences. It is concluded that responders to mail surveys will constitute an unbiased sample of a professional group if they represent 75% or more of Ss. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sumatriptan for migraine attacks in children: a randomized placebo-controlled study. Do children with migraine respond to oral sumatriptan differently from adults?

Oral sumatriptan is an effective acute treatment for migraine in adults, but its efficacy in children is still undetermined. Twenty-three children, aged 8.3 to 16.4 years, took both sumatriptan and placebo in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. The primary endpoint was a > or = 50% decrease in pain intensity on a 100-mm visual analogue scale at 2 hours. Other endpoints of efficacy were pain intensity difference (PID), showing pain relief at each time point; summed pain intensity differences (SPIDs), estimating overall pain relief; and preference. Two hours after sumatriptan, 7 of 23 reached the primary endpoint, and after placebo, 5 of 23 (difference 9%, 95% CI for difference, -21 to 38%; p = ns). Within 2 hours, the headache disappeared completely in 5 of 23 children after sumatriptan and in 2 of 23 children after placebo (p = ns). Median PIDs were slightly better for sumatriptan between 0.5 and 4 hours (p = ns). Median SPIDs increased almost identically up to 2 hours. Thereafter, median SPIDs for placebo remained practically constant, whereas for sumatriptan, the improvement continued. At 4 hours, the median SPID for sumatriptan was 2.4 times as high as for placebo. However, the maximum differences between median SPIDs at 4 hours (38.5, 95% CI, -75.8 to 57.5; Wilcoxon signed rank test, p = 0.4) or at any other point were not statistically significant. Of the 23 children, 13 preferred sumatriptan and 2 placebo (sign test, p = 0.004). The failure of this and previous controlled studies suggests that the response of children to sumatriptan may be different from adults.     

Fathers and children: Predicting the quality and quantity of fathering.

This study looked at the quality and quantity of interactions between fathers and their firstborn 5-year-olds from the perspective of the family as a developmental interdependent system. The goals were to identify predictors of men's parenting from men's own adaptation (direct effects) and from their wives' characteristics (indirect effects), both measured during the expectancy. Twenty-three families from the Boston University Pregnancy and Parenthood Project made up the sample. Measures included self-report scales, observations, and semistructured interviews. Several of men's psychological characteristics, particularly their autonomy and job satisfaction, predicted their play time and the quality of their interactions with their children. Women's autonomy, occupation, and age in the expectancy predicted men's caretaking and weekday time involvement with their 5-year-olds. We suggest that the findings can best be explained by the concepts of complementarity and identification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Judgements of ordinality and summation of number symbols by squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)

In Experiment 1, 2 squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) were given choices between all possible pairs of the arabic numbers 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9, with choice of any number yielding that number of pieces of peanut as a reward. Both monkeys learned to choose the larger number in all pairings and learned to choose the largest number within a set of 4 numbers. In Experiments 2-4, the monkeys were tested on problems in which they chose between pairs of stimuli containing 2 numbers versus 2 numbers, 1 number versus 2 numbers, and 3 numbers versus 3 numbers. Both monkeys showed a significant tendency to choose the stimulus that contained the largest sum. Various tests indicated that this effect could not be explained by choice of the stimulus with the largest single number, by avoidance of the stimulus with the smallest single number, or by experimenter cuing.     

Hands in the air: Using ungrounded iconic gestures to teach children conservation of quantity.

Including gesture in instruction facilitates learning. Why? One possibility is that gesture points out objects in the immediate context and thus helps ground the words learners hear in the world they see. Previous work on gesture's role in instruction has used gestures that either point to or trace paths on objects, thus providing support for this hypothesis. The experiments described here investigated the possibility that gesture helps children learn even when it is not produced in relation to an object but is instead produced "in the air." Children were given instruction in Piagetian conservation problems with or without gesture and with or without concrete objects. The results indicate that children given instruction with speech and gesture learned more about conservation than children given instruction with speech alone, whether or not objects were present during instruction. Gesture in instruction can thus help learners learn even when those gestures do not direct attention to visible objects, suggesting that gesture can do more for learners than simply ground arbitrary, symbolic language in the physical, observable world. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Meanings that professionals attach to labels for children.

Sought to identify relative meanings among professionals of 3 clinical labels for children—mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed, and juvenile delinquent—as well as an average or unlabeled choice. 40 regular classroom teachers of Grades 6–9 and 32 mental health workers responded on 2 questionnaires designed to measure their reactions to these labels with 9 questions concerned with expectations for the child's success in school and work, implications for treatment strategies, and motivation to work with the child. The labels conveyed clearly different relative meanings, and the 2 professional groups differed in a consistent fashion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related variation of topological evaluation of numerical quantity in nonconserving children.

Findings from a study with 24 2-5 yr old children who failed to demonstrate number conservation tend to support the view of Piaget that responses of nonconserving children to questions about number tend to vary with age. Strategies used by these Ss were consistent across 3 perceptual configurations (row, circular, and north-south-east-west arrangements). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hemispheric priming by meaningful and nonmeaningful symbols in language-trained chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Further evidence of a left hemisphere advantage.

Hemispheric priming was examined in 3 language-trained chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) using a simple reaction time (RT) paradigm. Ss were required to hold down a response button until the occurrence of a response cue. A warning stimulus was presented to either the left visual field or the right visual field (RVF) before the response cue occurred. No warning stimulus was presented on control trials. The warning stimuli were geometric communicative symbols from 2 semantic categories: food and tools. A 3rd set of warning stimuli were familiar geometric symbols. Dependent measures included RT and the number of false-positive responses. RT data indicated an RVF advantage in priming when the warning stimuli were food or tool symbols. No significant visual half-field differences were found for familiar symbols, but a trend toward an RVF advantage was observed. These effects were enhanced when Ss responded with their left hand. False-positive data also indicated an RVF advantage for the food and tool warning stimuli. The data indicate that hemispheric asymmetries for processing communicative symbols are present in language-trained chimpanzees. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

We should respond with fact and data.

C. A. Kiesler (1977) makes the mistake of rising to the rivalry between psychology and psychiatry in order to justify 3rd-party reimbursement to psychologists under the proposed national health insurance. Before psychologists accept 3rd-party payments, they should have a national licensing procedure, support the American Board of Professional Psychology, and institute professional peer review. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice.

Empirical evidence is presented from 7 samples regarding the factor structure; reliability; and convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of separate measures of internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. The scales reliably measure largely independent constructs and have good convergent and discriminant validity. Examination of the qualitatively distinct affective reactions to violations of own- and other-based standards as a function of the source of motivation to respond without prejudice provides evidence for the predictive validity of the scales. The final study demonstrated that reported stereotype endorsement varies as a function of motivation and whether reports are made in private or publicly. Results are discussed in terms of their support for the internal–external distinction and the significance of this distinction for identifying factors that may either promote or thwart prejudice reduction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preparing psychologists to work with children: A comparison of curricula in child-clinical and school psychology programs.

This study examined the curriculum requirements of APA-accredited PhD programs preparing psychologists to work with children. A category system for analyzing program curricula is presented. Substantial overlap was found in curriculum requirements between child-clinical and school psychology programs, particularly in "core" psychology, research methods, and intervention courses. Program types were best distinguished by more course work in consultation and education in school programs and more course work in psychopathology in child-clinical programs. Child-clinical trainees, on average, also undertook significantly more supervised experience. The observed commonalities between the program types suggest that a combined approach to training may be feasible. However, variations in requirements within program types make it difficult for the profession to articulate clearly the core competencies possessed by graduates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Arcuate nucleus inputs onto subfornical organ neurons that respond to plasma hypernatremia and angiotensin II

Experiments were done in urethane anesthetized rats to investigate the effect of electrical and glutamate stimulation of arcuate nucleus (Arc) on the discharge rate of subfornical organ (SFO) neurons that responded to either plasma hypernatremia or angiotensin II (ANG II). Extracellular recordings were made from 253 histologically verified single neurons in SFO. Of these, 40.3% (102/253) responded with excitation and 10% (25/253) with inhibition to Arc stimulation. Thirty-five (34.3%) of the units excited by Arc were also excited by intracarotid infusion of hypertonic (0.5 M) NaCl. In addition, 37 (36.3%) of the units excited by Arc were also excited by intracarotid infusion of ANG II. Furthermore, 10 (40.0%) of the units inhibited by Arc were found to be excited by ANG II. None of the units inhibited by Arc stimulation were responsive to plasma hypernatremia. These data indicate that inputs from Arc neurons converge onto SFO neurons that alter their discharge rate during changes in plasma concentration of Na+ or ANG II. These results suggest that Arc may be involved in body fluid balance and circulatory regulation by modulating the activity of SFO neurons that function in the detection of blood-borne signals from the depletion of intra- and extra-cellular fluid volumes.     

Specificity of the cardiac response to conspecific vocalizations in chimpanzees.

Used heart rate measures to examine the functional response of young chimpanzees and orangutans to acoustic stimuli, including white noise and chimpanzee vocalizations (threat, stress, and alarm). The initial response of the Ss to all stimuli was characterized by a cardiac (CAR) deceleration and an increase in heart period variability. The deceleratory responses persisted with repeated presentations of the noise, stress, and alarm stimuli. In contrast, the response of chimpanzees to the conspecific threat stimulus reverted over trials to a notable CAR acceleration. The features of the CAR response, together with the results of frequency-domain analyses of heart period variability, suggest that this acceleratory response was consistent with the evocation of an aversive or a defensive reaction characterized by sympathetic activation. This pattern of CAR response appeared early in ontogeny (within 48 hr postnatally) and was not manifest in orangutans. Taken together, results suggest the existence of specialized perceptual processing mechanisms for vocal stimuli in the chimpanzee. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Laparoscopic splenectomy in children. Preliminary results and comparison with the open technique

To determine the safety and efficacy of laparoscopic splenectomy (LS) in children, a retrospective review of our preliminary experience using LS was compared to results in patients who previously underwent open splenectomy (OS). From July 1993 to January 1995, we performed eight LS procedures in six children with hereditary spherocytosis (HS) and two with immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP). Laparoscopic cholecystectomy was simultaneously done in one case with HS. There were 4 males and 4 females who ranged in age from 5 to 15 years--an average age of 8.8 years. Two cases in the early series required a counterincision because of bleeding. Eleven patients who previously underwent OS in our department were used to compare demographics, operative courses, and surgical outcomes. The ages, genders, diseases, body weights, and spleen weights were comparable between LS group and OS groups. The operative time for the LS group was statistically longer than for the OS group (226 +/- 24 min vs 101 +/- 8 min, P < 0.001). The estimated blood loss in the LS group was similar to that of the OS group (100 +/- 39 ml vs 73 +/- 11 ml. P = 0.97). There were no peri- or postoperative complications in two groups. The postoperative hospital stay of LS group was statistically shorter than that of the OS (6.8 +/- 0.6 days vs 10.4 +/- .05 days, P < 0.0001). LS provided better cosmesis and minimized trauma in children over OS. LS appears to be a safe and effective procedure in children, and is useful in the management of pediatric patients with HS or ITP.     

Identification of a family of zinc transporter genes from Arabidopsis that respond to zinc deficiency

Millions of people worldwide suffer from nutritional imbalances of essential metals like zinc. These same metals, along with pollutants like cadmium and lead, contaminate soils at many sites around the world. In addition to posing a threat to human health, these metals can poison plants, livestock, and wildlife. Deciphering how metals are absorbed, transported, and incorporated as protein cofactors may help solve both of these problems. For example, edible plants could be engineered to serve as better dietary sources of metal nutrients, and other plant species could be tailored to remove metal ions from contaminated soils. We report here the cloning of the first zinc transporter genes from plants, the ZIP1, ZIP2, and ZIP3 genes of Arabidopsis thaliana. Expression in yeast of these closely related genes confers zinc uptake activities. In the plant, ZIP1 and ZIP3 are expressed in roots in response to zinc deficiency, suggesting that they transport zinc from the soil into the plant. Although expression of ZIP2 has not been detected, a fourth related Arabidopsis gene identified by genome sequencing, ZIP4, is induced in both shoots and roots of zinc-limited plants. Thus, ZIP4 may transport zinc intracellularly or between plant tissues. These ZIP proteins define a family of metal ion transporters that are found in plants, protozoa, fungi, invertebrates, and vertebrates, making it now possible to address questions of metal ion accumulation and homeostasis in diverse organisms.     

The clashing of symbols: Prelude to child and family policy.

Child and family policy has often been based on mythological views of childhood and family life. Assumptions that appear empirical instead often represent normative views of how children ought to fit into the social order. The result is that child and family policy tends to reflect irrational bases and conflicting goals. Psychologists may be most helpful to policymakers in family law by clarifying the differences between prevailing myths and empirical reality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)