Problem solving and learning.

A. Newell and H. A. Simon (1972) provided a framework for understanding problem solving that can provide the needed bridge between learning and performance. Their analysis of means–ends problem solving can be viewed as a general characterization of the structure of human cognition. However, this framework needs to be elaborated with a strength concept to account for variability in problem solving behavior and improvement in problem-solving skill with practice. The ACT* theory (J. R. Anderson, 1983) is such an elaborated theory that can account for many of the results about the acquisition of problem-solving skills. Its central concept is the production rule, which plays an analogous role to the stimulus–response bond in earlier learning theories. The theory has provided a basis for constructing intelligent computer-based tutoring systems for the instruction of academic problem-solving skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of collaborative problem solving among preschool children.

Identified the communication behaviors that enhanced collaborative problem solving in 3–5 yr olds. 32 dyads, matched by age, sex, and friendship, were videotaped as they used balance scales to locate matching pairs of blocks from sets that varied in weight and surface design, but not in size. Findings indicate major skill development in collaborative problem solving during the preschool years. Adequate vocabulary both for labeling objects and for relational concepts was the key to more successful collaboration. However, the vocabulary employed in such peer interaction did not always correspond to adult referential meanings: Children's use of "big" and "little," although the blocks were identical in size, facilitated successful solutions. Also productive were behaviors that enhanced attentiveness to cooperative interaction, including attention-focusing statements, questions, directives, and responsiveness to the partner. A developmental sequence of communication skills for responsive conversation, collaborative problem solving, tutoring, and persuasion is discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Prevention, Identification, and Cognitive Determinants of Math Difficulty.

This study examined the efficacy of preventive 1st-grade tutoring in mathematics, estimated the prevalence and severity of mathematics disability, and explored pretreatment cognitive characteristics associated with mathematics development. Participants were 564 first graders, 127 of whom were designated at risk (AR) for mathematics difficulty and randomly assigned to tutoring or control conditions. Before treatment, all participants were assessed on cognitive and academic measures. Tutoring occurred 3 times weekly for 16 weeks; treatment fidelity was documented; and math outcomes were assessed. Tutoring efficacy was supported on computation and concepts/applications, but not on fact fluency. Tutoring decreased the prevalence of math disability, with prevalence and severity varying as a function of identification method and math domain. Attention accounted for unique variance in predicting each aspect of end-of-year math performance. Other predictors, depending on the aspect of math performance, were nonverbal problem solving, working memory, and phonological processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of small-group tutoring with and without validated classroom instruction on at-risk students' math problem solving: Are two tiers of prevention better than one?

This study assessed the effects of small-group tutoring with and without validated classroom instruction on at-risk students' math problem solving. Stratifying within schools, 119 3rd-grade classes were randomly assigned to conventional or validated problem-solving instruction (Hot Math, schema-broadening instruction). Students identified as at risk (n=243) were randomly assigned, within classroom conditions, to receive or not receive Hot Math tutoring. Students were tested on problem-solving and math applications measures before and after 16 weeks of intervention. Analyses of variance, which accounted for the nested structure of the data, revealed that the tutored students who received validated classroom instruction achieved better than the tutored students who received conventional classroom instruction (effect size=1.34). However, the advantage for tutoring over no tutoring was similar whether students received validated or conventional classroom instruction (effect sizes=1.18 and 1.13). Tutoring, not validated classroom instruction, reduced the prevalence of math difficulty. Implications for responsiveness-to-intervention prevention models and for enhancing math problem-solving instruction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer-tutoring outcomes as influenced by the equity and type of role assignment.

A field experiment with an initial sample of 178 undergraduate classmates engaged in same-age peer tutoring was conducted to test a theoretical model that attached greater desirability (a) to be the tutor than the tutee and (b) to be in an equitable (status-congruent) rather than an inequitable relationship. Same-sex pairs were formed such that the tutor had relatively greater (the equity condition), equal, or lower pretest competency than the tutee. Partners in half the pairs exchanged roles for the 2nd of 2 tutor-training and tutoring sessions. Overall application of the method of comparisons and multivariate ANOVAs clearly supported the model: Participant satisfaction, perceptions of good performance, and actual performance were directly dependent on becoming tutor and entering an equitable tutoring relationship. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expert modeling, self-observation using videotape, and acquisition of basic therapy skills.

Self-observation and observation of an experienced therapist were evaluated as aids in learning listening skills. 48 female college students interviewed mock clients before and after training. Training groups observed a videotape of an experienced therapist lecturing about listening skills, an experienced therapist modeling listening skills, a novice therapist attempting to use listening skills, or the S's own pretraining interview. All groups' skills improved significantly. Ss completed measures regarding feelings during interviews and about training. Trends indicated that Ss observing themselves improved least on all measures of both skill and feelings, and yet expressed most positive reaction to their training. Ss observing the experienced model improved most of all the groups in use of skills. Results raise questions about the usefulness of videotaping and support greater use of expert modeling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactions to school consultation: Some considerations from a problem-solving perspective.

W. Pryzwansky's (see record 1989-38304-001) research on cognitive aspects of problem solving as applied to experts and novices in school psychology is critiqued, and contributions to the literature are highlighted. Major issues discussed include potential differences between expert problem solving in the sciences and collaborative problem solving in school consultation. Also discussed are problem-solving research applied to school consultation, the demand (or lack of) for consultative services, and implications (e.g., timing) for training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dynamic assessment of algebraic learning in predicting third graders' development of mathematical problem solving.

Dynamic assessment (DA) involves helping students learn a task and indexing responsiveness to that instruction as a measure of learning potential. The purpose of this study was to explore the utility of a DA of algebraic learning in predicting third graders' development of mathematics problem solving. In the fall, 122 third-grade students were assessed on language, nonverbal reasoning, attentive behavior, calculations, word-problem skill, and DA. On the basis of random assignment, students received 16 weeks of validated instruction on word problems or received 16 weeks of conventional instruction on word problems. Then, students were assessed on word-problem measures proximal and distal to instruction. Structural equation measurement models showed that DA measured a distinct dimension of pretreatment ability and that proximal and distal word-problem measures were needed to account for outcome. Structural equation modeling showed that instruction (conventional vs. validated) and pretreatment calculation skills were sufficient to account for math word-problem outcome proximal to instruction; by contrast, language, pretreatment word-problem skill, and DA were needed to forecast learning on word-problem outcomes more distal to instruction. Findings are discussed in terms of responsiveness-to-intervention models for preventing and identifying learning disabilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A study of anxiety and learning in children.

"A general anxiety scale and a test anxiety scale were administered to 747 grade school children. Out of this group, 24 HA-LA pairs of subjects were given 2 modified paired-associate learning tasks, separated by neutral, failure, and success instructions. The results showed no differences due to instructions, but LA Ss performed better than HA Ss in the second task. Alternative explanations for the lack of differences on the first task were offered. The study was interpreted as positive evidence for the validity of the anxiety scales." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental invariance in distinctiveness effects in memory.

Improvements in 5- and 7-year-olds' acquisition and retention of related concept pairings were examined when additional similarities and differences between pair members were provided. Using a standard paired-associate learning paradigm, children learned 18 related picture pairs; some of the children either were given or produced additional similarities or differences between pair members at the time of learning. Three weeks after learning was complete, children attempted to recall the pairs. Using a model to determine the storage and retrieval loci of these effects, the results showed that (a) all children benefited from self-generated elaborations, regardless of whether these were similarities or differences, and these benefits were storage related, and (b) difference elaborations improved children's retention regardless of whether they were self- or experimenter-generated, and these effects were primarily retrieval based. These results are consistent with theories that (a) view retrieval as the locus of distinctiveness effects and (b) view storage as the locus of self-generated memory improvements. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement.

Investigated how the self-efficacy and achievement of 72 children (aged 8 yrs 6 mo to 10 yrs 10 mo) were influenced by their observing peer models learn a cognitive skill. Within this context, the effects of modeled mastery and coping behaviors were explored. Ss were children who had experienced difficulties learning subtraction with regrouping operations in their classes. Ss were pre- and posttested on measures of subtraction self-efficacy, skill, and persistence. Ss observed a same-sex peer demonstrate either rapid (mastery model) or gradual (coping model) acquisition of subtraction skills, observed a teacher model demonstrate subtraction operations, or did not observe a model. Ss then judged self-efficacy for learning to subtract and received subtraction training. Observing a peer model led to higher self-efficacy for learning, posttest self-efficacy, and achievement than did observing the teacher model or not observing a model. Ss who observed the teacher model scored higher than no-model Ss on these measures. No significant differences due to type of peer modeled behavior (mastery/coping) were obtained on any measure. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences and a spatial learning factor in two strains of mice (Mus musculus).

Current theoretical approaches to animal intelligence either in the form of adaptive specializations or general processes make no explicit predictions nor do they provide substantial evidence concerning individual differences in problem solving. Two strains of mice (Mus musculus) were run through a battery of water escape tasks consisting of 4 spatial learning tasks, a visual discrimination task, and an activity control. The 2 strains were the second filial generation (F2) from a cross between C57BL/6 and DBA/2Js inbred strains and a CD-1 outbred strain. Results indicated positive correlations across all learning tasks in both strains for latency and error measures. Factor analysis revealed a significant first factor for these measures in both strains. These results suggest that at least some spatial and visual tasks in mice under this motivational condition share common properties. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contribution of equal-sign instruction beyond word-problem tutoring for third-grade students with mathematics difficulty.

Elementary school students often misinterpret the equal sign (=) as an operational rather than a relational symbol. Such misunderstanding is problematic because solving equations with missing numbers may be important for the development of higher order mathematics skills, including solving word problems. Research indicates equal-sign instruction can alter how typically developing students use the equal sign, but no study has been conducted on the effects of such instruction for students with mathematics difficulty (MD) or how equal-sign instruction contributes to word-problem-solving skill for students with or without MD. In the present study, the authors assessed the efficacy of equal-sign instruction within word-problem tutoring. Third-grade students with MD (n = 80) were assigned to word-problem tutoring, word-problem tutoring plus equal-sign instruction (combined) tutoring, or no-tutoring control. Combined tutoring produced greater improvement on equal sign tasks and open equations than did the other 2 conditions. On certain forms of word problems, combined tutoring, but not word-problem tutoring alone, produced more improvement than did the control condition. When compared at posttest with 3rd-grade students without MD on equal-sign tasks and open equations, only combined tutoring students with MD performed comparably. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Collaborative everyday problem solving among same-gender friends in early and later adulthood.

To investigate potential age-related differences in performance gains (compensation and optimization) and losses (failure to actualize potential) of collaboration with a familiar partner, the authors compared pairs of older (N = 75; 69% women) and younger (N = 75; 52% women) age-homogeneous same-gender friends who interacted or worked alone to generate strategies for solving interpersonal and instrumental problems. Two indexes of strategy fluency (total and unique number of strategies) and 2 indexes of strategy type (content of strategy repertoires and strategy selected as most effective by older and younger adults) were examined. Strategies generated by interacting pairs were compared with nominal pair scores. Nominal pair scores indexed dyadic potential and were created by pooling the performance of 2 individuals who worked alone. Age differences in strategy fluency and type were largely similar to prior research based on individual problem solvers. Interacting pairs produced fewer strategies than nominal pairs, but there were no differences in strategy type. For interpersonal problems, older adults were relatively more likely to actualize their dyadic potential. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Limited contextual vocal learning in the grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus): The effect of interactive co-viewers on videotaped instruction.

Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) do not acquire referential English labels when tutored with videotapes (a) in social isolation (I. M. Pepperberg, 1994); (b) when reward for an attempted label is possible (I. M. Pepperberg, J. R. Naughton, & P. A. Banta, 1998); or (c) when trainers direct birds' attention to the video monitor (I. M. Pepperberg et al., 1998). To test whether more participatory training and variety might facilitate learning from videotapes, during video viewing a single trainer repeated the targeted labels, asked questions, and rewarded attempts at the label with the object; live video input was also used. Subjects also received live tutoring from a pair of interactive trainers on a different set of object labels. Birds learned referential labels from live tutor pairs but not from video. Specific aspects of live tutoring appear critical for the acquisition of referential English labels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Distributed Education and the Role of Online Learning in Training Professional Psychologists.

Distributed learning and its allied concept, distance education, have the potential to move graduate training beyond the physical classroom, providing "anytime" and "anyplace" educational opportunities to new groups of learners as well as to students in traditional campus-based programs. It is argued that the focus on online learning activities found in distributed learning institutions is most compatible with a model of pedagogy that emphasizes, among other things, asynchronous small group discussions, collaborative problem solving, reflective inquiry, competency-based outcomes, and the facilitator role of the instructor. The article concludes with suggestions for and challenges regarding the application of computer-based learning tools to the training of clinical psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rigidity in neurosis and general personality functioning.

That neurotics manifested greater rigidity than nonneurotics was the major assumption tested. Rigidity was measured in five different areas of psychological functioning, viz., problem solving, motor, learning, perception, and concept formation. The results confirmed the hypothesis to at least the .05 level of confidence in all areas except problem solving and some aspect of a learning task. Neurotics were seen not to be rigid on all tasks uniformly. Some interneurotic differences were noted; anxiety neurotics seemed to be more rigid on some tasks, obsessive on others. Further exploration was called for to validate this observation. From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2JT89P. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance vectors: A theoretical and experimental attack upon emphasis, effect, and repression.

"In each trial, 16 pairs of verbal phrases were presented, a pair at a time, in two windows in a perpendicular display panel facing the subject. The subject was asked on the first trial to guess, and then on succeeding trials to learn, which item in each pair was 'correct."' In a "'shock-right' group, the subjects obtained a shock in the original learning whenever they pressed the level and button for the correct item in the case of half of the 16 pairs and no shock for either item in the case of the other 8 pairs. In… a 'shock-wrong' group, the subjects obtained a shock in the original learning whenever pressing the lever and button for the incorrect item in the case of half of the pairs and no shock for the other 8 pairs." A "no-shock" group received no shock in original learning. Data concerning original learning and also relearning are presented. The "notion of emphasis was not here supported." Differences between the 3 groups are believed performance differences; it is assumed that "for all groups… the rate of actual learning was really about the same." The concept of vectors is used in discussing learning and performance. "The simple law of Effect is either out or needs reformulation… . We did find, I think, something like a pale pink simulacrum of 'repression."' If so, "it is obviously a performance and not a learning phenomenon." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)