Construction Scheduling and Progress Control Using Geographical Information Systems

Traditional scheduling and progress control techniques such as bar charts and the critical path method (CPM) fail to provide information pertaining to the spatial aspects of a construction project. A system called PMS-GIS (Progress Monitoring System with Geographical Information Systems) was developed to represent construction progress not only in terms of a CPM schedule but also in terms of a graphical representation of the construction that is synchronized with the work schedule. In PMS-GIS, the architectural design is executed using a computer-aided drafting (CAD) program (AutoCAD), the work schedule is generated using a project management software (P3), the design and schedule information (including percent complete information) are plugged into a GIS package (ArcViewGIS), and for every update, the system produces a CPM-generated bar chart alongside a 3D rendering of the project marked for progress. The GIS-based system developed in this study helps to effectively communicate the schedule∕progress information to the parties involved in the project, because they will be able to see in detail the spatial aspects of the project alongside the schedule.     

Removal of Redundant Relationships in an AON Project Network for Evaluating Schedule Complexity

Since redundant relationships in an activity-on-node (AON) project network indicate that the schedule is more complex than it actually is, they should not be considered when evaluating the schedule complexity. However, identifying the relationships that can be removed while maintaining the project logic is not an easy task. For this purpose, this paper proposes a methodology, adapted from interpretive structural modeling, that basically transforms an AON project network into a network called minimum-edge diagraph which contains no redundant relationships. The methodology steps are explained through a demonstrative example of a simple hypothetical project. The application of the methodology to the AON network of a real construction project shows that it is easy to use yet effective in removing redundant relationships.     

Internet-Based Geographical Information Systems System for E-Commerce Application in Construction Material Procurement

This study combines two luminous areas, geographical information systems (GIS) and E-commerce system, and applies the combined technology in the business of construction material trading. In the era of electronic business, trades can be accomplished without limitations on time and space. The statement is true in principle only, but in reality, any kind of business activity must involve transportation of goods from one place to another, and therefore, constrain in space is always in existence. GIS is capable to integrate, to manage, and to analyze information regarding to space (spatial information). This study investigates the roles of internet-based GIS in E-commence systems. It is identified that there is a great potential to use GIS in E-commerce system to provide better services in location-based queries, business area analysis, and transportation analysis. Accordingly, an E-commerce system for the business of construction material is developed. The implemented system is called construction materials exchange, this is currently operating for the over 2,000 buyers, 29,000 suppliers, and 1,000 agents, and the system mainly servers for the great China region. This paper presents the system from its conceptual business model, logical system design, to the system implementation.     

3D Scan Information Management System for Construction Management

This paper presents an internet-based three-dimensional (3D) scan information management system (3DSIMS) that can be used as an interface to input, display, and inspect design as-built construction information. This system is mainly developed using 3D scan data. The function of the 3DSIMS is to integrate the scan data collected before, during, and after a scan scheme that is designed to capture as-built 3D records. The information included in this system consists of a scan scheme, scanned point clouds, construction records, and postscan processed clouds for the display, search, and comparison of scans made each week during the construction of a campus building. This study represents a long-term effort that has rarely been done before. A web page is used to deliver and share scan information. The feasibility of this approach is explained by the examples of dimension-related checks through as-built data.     

Merging Architectural, Engineering, and Construction Ontologies

Ontologies have emerged as a means of facilitating semantic interoperability among computer systems. However, recognizing that no single universally agreed-on ontology can ever be defined for a domain, a tool that allows ontologies to interoperate becomes essential to semantic interoperability. This paper presents an ontology integrator (Onto-Integrator) for facilitating ontology interoperability within the architectural, engineering, and construction (AEC) domain. The Onto-Integrator offers a heuristic for ontology merging, including the merging of concept taxonomies, relations, and axioms. Unlike existing tools, the integrator addresses ontology merging requirements that are specific to the AEC domain. The integrator heuristic was implemented into a prototype Web-based tool and was evaluated through a focus group.     

Critical Factors Affecting Schedule Performance: Evidence from Indian Construction Projects

Over 40% of Indian construction projects are facing time overrun ranging from 1 to 252 months; the reasons for which are being studied by researchers to suggest possible remedial measures. This paper identifies 55 attributes responsible for impacting performance of the projects. These attributes were then presented to Indian construction professionals in the form of a questionnaire. Statistical analysis of responses on the attributes segregated them into distinct sets of success attributes and failure attributes. Factor analysis of sets of success attributes and failure attributes separately grouped them into six critical success factors and seven critical failure factors. In order to understand the extent of contribution these factors have on the outcome of a construction project, a second stage questionnaire survey was also undertaken. The analyses of responses of the second stage questionnaire led us to conclude that two success factors and one failure factor: commitment of project participants; owner’s competence; and conflict among project participants contribute significantly in enhancement of current performance level of the project. The extent of their contribution has, however, been observed to vary for a given level of project performance. The analyses results are expected to help project professionals to focus on a few factors and get the optimum results rather than giving attention to all the factors and not getting the proportionate results.     

Flexible Work Breakdown Structure for Integrated Cost and Schedule Control

Integration of cost and schedule control systems has been an issue of great concern for researchers and practitioners in the construction industry. Nevertheless, the real-world implementation of this promising concept has not been popular enough to maximize the benefits that this integration has to offer. One of the major barriers is the overhead effort to collect and maintain detailed data. The purpose of this paper is to propose a flexible work breakdown structure (WBS) that optimizes the overhead effort by means of reducing the amount of data to be controlled. In order to have a flexible structure, the WBS numbering system needs to utilize standard classification codes and should not have a common strict hierarchy for all components. A case study is analyzed in this paper in order to examine the proposed concept. Practical implications are outlined as well.     

Evaluating Risk in Construction–Schedule Model (ERIC–S): Construction Schedule Risk Model

Research was undertaken to develop a method to assist in the determination of the lower and upper activity duration values for schedule risk analysis by program evaluation and review technique analysis or Monte Carlo simulation. A belief network was the modeling environment used for this purpose, and the resulting model was named Evaluating Risk in Construction–Schedule Model. The development of the belief network model consisted of four steps. First, construction schedule risks were identified through a literature review, an expert review, and a group review by a team of experts. Second, cause effect relationships among these risks were identified through an expert survey. This led to the development of the structure of belief network model. Third, probabilities for various combinations of parents for each risk variable were obtained through an expert interview survey and incorporated into the model. Finally, sensitivity analysis was performed. The model was tested using 17 case studies with very good results.     

Use of GIS and Topology in the Identification and Resolution of Space Conflicts

Construction activities need space on the jobsite for their execution. Workers, equipment, materials, temporary facilities, and the developing structure share the limited jobsite space during the construction period. Multiple types of spaces for different purposes on various locations are required to execute various activities at different times. Hence, space planning helps provide a safe and productive environment. Planners mentally link two-dimensional (2D) drawings and execution schedules to generate dynamic multiple types of space requirements, which is a complex task. Therefore, researchers suggest the use of four-dimensional (4D) modeling and building information modeling (BIM) for space planning. Both simulate the construction process by linking the execution schedule with a three-dimensional (3D) model to visualize the construction sequence in space planning. However, both still lack features such as topography modeling and geospatial analysis, which affect space planning. In this work, 4D geographic information systems (GIS) were used for space planning that facilitates topographic modeling, different types of geospatial analyses, and database management. GIS was also used to generate multiple types of spaces corresponding to various activities. A feature attribute table (FAT) associated with each space describes when, where, and how long that space will be required on the jobsite. GIS-based area topology was implemented through a set of validation rules that define how working areas have to share the jobsite. A GIS-based methodology that enables space planning, time-space conflict identification, and conflict resolution prior to the construction was developed and implemented.     

Exploratory Study on Value of Information Systems to Electrical Construction Companies: Resource-Based View

Many practitioners and researchers believe that the application of information systems in the construction industry lags behind that of other industries such as the manufacturing industry, because the construction industry is mainly composed of small to medium size companies. Besides, to many people, the value of information systems to their business is vague and elusive. Existing studies on the value of information systems are not specifically focused on small to medium size specialty contractors such as electrical contractors. In addition, with an intention to demonstrate the value of information systems to the improvement of operations or business of all relevant companies, those studies typically do not look into the impact of information systems on the competitive advantage of individual companies. This paper argues that such a generalization of the value of information systems, although valuable to both practitioners and researchers, may have overlooked the fact that the value of information systems needs to be reflected through improved competitive advantage of a company and the competitive advantage is company specific. Thus, the examination of different effects of information systems on individual companies can generate useful insight into the value of information systems because such a strategy leads to a better understanding of the relationships between information systems and the competitive advantage of individual companies. With such a perspective, this study applies a case study strategy to study five small to medium size electrical construction companies based on the resource-based view theory. The case studies show that the observed electrical construction companies are well equipped in terms of physical information infrastructure in relation to their business objectives regardless of company size. However, their capabilities of strategically integrating information systems with their business plans and with their external business partners are general lacking, compared with their physical information system infrastructure. This is partly because many electrical contractors do not fully understand that there are many different forms of information systems that have different impacts on gaining and sustaining competitive advantage. This paper then conjectures that the existing imbalanced application of information systems may not lead to the improved competitive advantage of electrical construction companies, which in turn prevent many contractors from clearly seeing the value of the information systems. Thus, the paper further points out that a plan for the systematical implementation of information systems in a company is very important. However, the successful development of such a plan depends on a better understanding of electrical contactors on the concepts of information system capabilities, competitive advantage, and their relationships.     

Developing an ARIS-House-Based Method from Existing Information Systems to Project-Based Enterprise Resource Planning for General Contractor

In recent years, general contractors in the construction industry have gradually begun to implement a system called enterprise resource planning (ERP). During the ERP implementation process, contractors performed required analyses on daily operation functions demanded by the enterprise. The analyses focused on function mapping to ensure that ERP satisfies all the requirements, including the functions of existing information systems, and meets future requirements. The process of function mapping in the construction industry typically involves a series of lengthy and time-consuming meetings, and face-to-face discussions; systematic analysis procedure was lacking. This research will propose a novel function mapping approach, the Architecture of Integrated Information Systems (ARIS)-house-based (AHB) method, to enhance the effectiveness of meetings and improve the efficiency of discussions. In addition, AHB method will use the structure of ARIS-house diagram to guide the function mapping process, streamline existing information systems, meet future requirements, and successfully implement ERP. Finally, this research will use a case study to verify the effectiveness of the AHB method for contractor to implement ERP.     

Empirical Analysis of Construction Enterprise Information Systems: Assessing System Integration, Critical Factors, and Benefits

Attaining higher levels of system integration is seen as the primary goal of construction enterprise information systems (CEIS). Increased system integration resulting from CEIS implementation is expected to lead to numerous benefits. These benefits encompass information technology infrastructure and strategic, operational, organizational, and managerial aspects of the firm. By adopting CEIS, firms seek tangible and intangible benefits, such as cost reduction, improved productivity, enhanced efficiency, and business growth. Through the use of statistical analysis, this study quantifies the critical success factors that impact CEIS integration and the ensuing benefits. Furthermore, it analyzes the effects of system integration on CEIS induced benefits. It also investigates the impact of CEIS strategy on CEIS induced benefits and identifies the relationship between CEIS strategy and system integration. Finally, it assesses the effects of CEIS induced benefits on user satisfaction and provides a CEIS implementation guide map for construction firms.     

Automating Schedule Review for Expressway Construction

An expressway project is often divided into subprojects with different tendering packages, and carried out by several general contractors that apply different scheduling practices. Each schedule may contain hundreds of activities, each of which is associated with multiple pay items that determine its earned monetary value. With such huge amount of information, the reviewer can only check a sample piece of information, and the quality of review highly depends on the reviewer’s experience and devotion. Automated schedule review provides a solution to reduce such problems encountered in the industry. This paper presents a module-based schedule generation and review model, which includes a predefined set of network modules, network builder assistant computer system that helps schedulers manage and reuse the modules to build a new schedule, and another computer system network review assistant (NRA) that helps reviewers review schedules. The NRA uses generalized rule forms to represent the schedule critique knowledge collected from the industry. When potential errors are found, the NRA adopts case-based reasoning to suggest possible correction based on similar cases. The evaluation conducted by the practitioners using real projects indicates that NRA reduces review time, and provides more accurate review on finding activities and related pay items not conforming to standards, and reminding users of important but often omitted activities.     

Exponential, Gamma, and Power Law Distributions in Information Flow on a Construction Site

This paper examines the statistical distributions of interarrival and response times for construction-site correspondence. Data from a number of construction projects are analyzed and hypotheses are proposed and tested to link the probability distribution to the type of correspondence. Although the commonly assumed exponential distribution of interarrival times is found to be accurate for all types of correspondence, the response times for different types of correspondence follow different distributions depending on the type of correspondence. In particular, a power law relationship is observed between incidence frequency and response time for requests for information. Knowing the statistical distributions for a class of events helps managers forecast future work and manage risk. Simulation models used by practitioners and researchers for various project management goals are also improved by incorporating appropriate statistical distributions for generating various events.     

Fuzzy Geographic Information Systems for Phytoremediation Plant Selection

Geographic information systems (GIS) technology was combined with fuzzy logic to construct a phytoremediation plant selection tool. Phytoremediation involves the use of vegetation for treatment of contaminated soils, sediments, and water. In this paper, the focus is on one particular phytoremediation mechanism plant-assisted bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) soil contamination. Many plants show potential for PAH remediation, but factors such as growth requirements, climate, and soil conditions need to be considered. Given the spatial nature of the data involved, GIS was chosen as the basis for the plant selection tool. Eight candidate plants were selected because of their PAH phytoremediation potential, and their growth requirements were represented using fuzzy membership functions to account for parameters’ uncertainty. Vermont and South Carolina were selected as case studies, and calculations were performed to determine the suitability ratings for each of the candidate plants in these areas based on the plants’ growth requirements with respect to climate and soil attributes.     

Ontology-Based Approach to Context Representation and Reasoning for Managing Context-Sensitive Construction Information

The construction industry is an information-intensive industry and heavily relies on documents, including physical and virtual documentation and models, to exchange context-sensitive information among different project participants. Many research efforts have been made to help manage construction information; however, few of them considered the context-sensitive nature of the information. In this paper, the writers propose a new approach to facilitate the management of context-sensitive construction information that is stored in different textual documents. The approach addresses the context-sensitive nature of construction information by representing contexts in ontologies and by using contexts as indices of the information. The approach also presents a reasoning mechanism that leverages the semantically rich features of ontologies to reason about contexts to evaluate their applicabilities. Two case studies were conducted, and the results showed the proposed approach can effectively retrieve, classify, and manage construction information. Finally, the writers discuss the limitations of the proposed approach and future research directions.     

Expert Systems for Construction Project Monitoring

Potential applications of knowledge based expert systems in the area of construction project monitoring and control are described. Originally developed from research in artificial intelligence, these systems are computer programs that can undertake intelligent tasks currently performed by highly skilled people. While some project monitoring can be accomplished by algorithmic procedures, the capability of knowledge based expert systems to deal with illstructured problems and to be extensively modified over time make them desirable for application in this area. Sample applications and heuristic rules in scheduling and inventory control are provided.     

Reduction of Short-Interval GPS Data for Construction Operations Analysis

The systems that historically have been used to collect data for time studies of construction operations are manual in nature and limited to the observer’s field of view. Global Positioning System (GPS) technology incorporated into an onboard instrumentation system can be used to autonomously collect position and velocity data without the field of view limitation. Data must be collected at a short time interval to provide the level of detail necessary for operations analysis. Thus the issue becomes managing the data and identifying the relatively key records that mark the start and stop of activities. A field observer identifies the key times in real time with instantaneous decisions of when one activity stops and the next starts based on enormous volumes of visual information. This work developed a methodology for making equivalent decisions based on GPS data and presents the procedures developed to identify the key records necessary to calculate activity durations. A case study is used to illustrate application of the system to an earthmoving operation. Also, it is postulated how the information can be used in discrete event simulation.     

Development of a Web-GIS Based Geotechnical Information System

The construction industry benefits greatly if all the existing three-dimensional (3D) geotechnical subsurface information of a city/country can be accessed at any time using the Internet. The geographic information system (GIS) is well suited for such problems; however, GIS was originally developed for two-dimensional planes. Recently, some 3D capabilities for GIS have been developed, but these capabilities in their present form alone are not suitable for storing and presenting three-dimensional geotechnical data. One way to overcome the limitation of data storage is integration of GIS with a relational database management system (RDBMS). A Web-based geotechnical information system that can perform online spatial queries, generation of professional borelogs, and various geotechnical analyses was developed. The system has been developed as a national geotechnical information system (GeoInfoSys) for Singapore. The system provides easy-to-use functions to: (1) locate and purchase boreholes of interest; (2) view borelogs and cross sections that are generated online; (3) provide downloadable data in a standard format for downstream analysis; and (4) perform geotechnical queries using a geotechnical search engine (GSE). The geotechnical information was stored in a digital format rather than as static images; this provides many opportunities to explore the data, and these opportunities are discussed herein.     

Component-Based Framework for Implementing Integrated Architectural/Engineering/Construction Project Systems

Current practices and integration trends in the architectural/engineering/construction (A/E/C) industry are increasing the demands for the implementation and deployment of integrated project systems. Much of the research throughout the last decade was driven by the need to develop integrated project systems and standard industry-wide data models to support their development. This paper presents a multitier component-based framework that aims to facilitate the implementation of modular and distributed integrated project systems that would support multidisciplinary project processes throughout the project life cycle. The framework addresses the specific requirements of A/E/C projects, and highlights the required functionality and approach to develop integrated project systems. The framework defines a three-tier architecture: Applications tier, common domain-services tier, and project data-repository tier. The applications tier includes a set of function-specific software tools that interact with the domain-services-tier components via a set of adapters. Adapters map the applications’ internal proprietary-data models to and from a standard integrated data model. The domain-services-tier components implement a number of generic services, such as data management, transactions management, document management, and workflow management. The data-repository tier represents a centralized shared storage of all relevant project information. The paper also discusses the implementation of a prototype software system that demonstrates the use of the framework’s reusable components and the industry foundation classes data model in typical building projects.