Hot Compression Deformation Behavior and Processing Maps of Mg-Gd-Y-Zr Alloy

Hot compression deformation behavior and processing maps of the Mg-Gd-Y-Zr alloy were investigated in this paper. Compression tests were conducted at the temperature range from 300 to 450 °C and the strain rate range from 0.001 to 1.0 s^?1. It is found that the flow stress behavior is described by the hyperbolic sine constitutive equation in which the average activation energy of 251.96 kJ/mol is calculated. Through the flow stress behavior, the processing maps are calculated and analyzed according to the dynamic materials model. In the processing maps, the variation of the efficiency of the power dissipation is plotted as a function of temperature and strain rate. The instability domains of flow behavior are identified by the maps. The maps exhibit a domain of dynamic recrystallization occurring at the temperature range of 375-450 °C and strain rate range of 0.001-0.03 s^?1 which are the optimum parameters for hot working of the alloy.     

Research on the Hot Deformation Behavior of Al-Zn-Mg-Sc-Zr Alloy During Compression at Elevated Temperature

The flow behavior of Al-Zn-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy during hot compression deformation was studied by isothermal compression test using Gleeble-1500 thermo-mechanical equipment. Compression tests were performed in the temperature range of 340-500 °C and in the strain rate range of 0.001-10 s^?1.The results indicate that the flow stress of the alloy increases with increasing strain rate at a given temperature, and decreases with increasing temperature at a given imposed strain rate. The relationship between flow stress and strain rate and temperature was derived by analyzing the experimental data. The constitutive equation of Al-Zn-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy during hot compression deformation can be described by the Arrhenius relationship of the hyperbolic sine form. The values of A, n, and α in the analytical expression of strain rate are fitted to be 1.49 × 10¹⁰ s^?1, 7.504, and 0.0114 MPa^?1, respectively. The hot deformation activation energy of the alloy during compression is 150.25 kJ/mol. The temperature and strain rate have great influences on microstructure evolution of Al-Zn-Mg-Sc-Zr alloy during hot compression deformation. According to microstructure evolution, the dynamic flow softening is mainly caused by dynamic recovery and dynamic recrystallization in this present experiment.     

Deformation behavior and processing maps of Mg-Zn-Y alloy containing I phase at elevated temperatures

The microstructure and mechanical properties of extruded Mg-Zn alloy containing Y element were investigated in temperature range of 300–450 °C and strain rate range of 0.001–1 s^?1 through hot compression tests. Processing maps were used to indicate optimum conditions and instability zones for hot deformation of alloys. For Mg-Zn and Mg-Zn-Y alloys, peak stress, temperature and strain rate were related by hyperbolic sine function, and activation energies were obtained to be 177 and 236 kJ/mol, respectively. Flow curves showed that the addition of Y element led to increase in peak stress and decrease in peak strain, and indicated that DRX started at lower strains in Mg-Zn-Y alloy than in Mg-Zn alloy. The stability domains of Mg-Zn-Y alloy were indicated in two domains as 1) 300 °C, 0.001 s^?1; 350 °C, 0.01–0.1 s^?1 and 400 °C, 0.01 s^?1 and 2) 450 °C, 0.01–0.1 s^?1. Microstructural observations showed that DRX was the main restoration mechanism for alloys, and fully dynamic recrystallization of Mg-Zn-Y alloy was observed at 450 °C. The instability domain in Mg-Zn-Y alloy was located significantly at high strain rates. In addition, the instability zone width of Mg-Zn and Mg-Zn-Y alloys increased with increasing strain, and cracks, twins and severe deformation were considered in these regions.     

Hot Deformation Characteristics of GH625 and Development of a Processing Map

The hot deformation behavior of GH625 is investigated by a compression test in the temperature range of 950-1150 °C and the strain rate of 10^?3-5 s^?1. It is found that the flow stress behavior is described by the hyperbolic sine constitutive equation with average activation energy of 421 kJ/mol. Through the flow stresses’ curves, the processing maps are constructed and analyzed according to the dynamic materials model. In the processing map, the variation of the efficiency of the power dissipation is plotted as a function of temperature and strain rate, and the maps exhibit a significant feature with a domain of dynamic recrystallization occurring at the temperature range of 950-1150 °C and in the strain rate range of 0.005-0.13 s^?1, which are the optimum parameters for hot working of the alloy. Meanwhile, the instability zones of flow behavior can also be recognized by the maps.     

The Use of ANN to Predict the Hot Deformation Behavior of AA7075 at Low Strain Rates

In this study, artificial neural network (ANN) was used to model the hot deformation behavior of 7075 aluminum alloy during compression test, in the strain rate range of 0.0003-1 s^?1 and temperature range of 200-450 °C. The inputs of the model were temperature, strain rate, and strain, while the output of the model was the flow stress. The feed-forward back-propagation network with two hidden layers was built and successfully trained at different deformation domains by Levenberg-Marquardt training algorithm. Comparative analysis of the results obtained from the hyperbolic sine, the power law constitutive equations, and the ANN shows that the newly developed ANN model has a better performance in predicting the hot deformation behavior of 7075 aluminum alloy.     

Optimization of thermal processing parameters of Ti555211 alloy using processing maps based on Murty criterion

Isothermal compression testing of Ti555211 titanium alloys was carried out at deformation temperatures from 750 to 950 °C in 50 °C intervals with a strain rate of0.001–1.000 s~(-1). The high-temperature deformation behavior of the Ti555211 alloy was characterized by analysis of stress–strain behavior, kinetics and processing maps. A constitutive equation was formulated to describe the flow stress as a function of deformation temperature and strain rate, and the calculated apparent activation energies are found to be 454.50 and 207.52 k J mol~(-1)in the a b-phase and b-phase regions, respectively. A processing map based on the Murty instability criterion was developed at a strain of 0.7. The maps exhibit two domains of peak efficiency from 750 to 950 °C. A *60 % peak efficiency occurs at 800–850 °C/0.001–0.010 s~(-1). The other peak efficiency of *60 % occurs at C950 °C/0.001–0.010 s~(-1), which can be considered to be the optimum condition for high-temperature working of this alloy.However, at strain rates of higher than 1.000 s~(-1)and deformation temperatures of 750 and 950 °C, clear process flow lines and bands of flow localization occur in the hightemperature deformation process, which should be avoided in Ti555211 alloy hot processing. The mechanism in stability domain and instability domain was also discussed.     

Characterization of Hot Deformation Behavior of AMS 5708 Nickel-Based Superalloy Using Processing Map

The hot deformation behavior of AMS 5708 nickel-based superalloy was investigated by means of hot compression tests and a processing map in the temperature range of 950-1200 °C and a strain rate range of 0.01-1 s^?1 was constructed. The true stress-true strain curves showed that the maximum flow stress decreases with the increase of temperature and decrease of strain rate. The developed processing map based on experimental data, showed variations of efficiency of power dissipation relating to temperature and strain rate at constant strain. Interpretation of the processing map showed one stable domain, in which dynamic recrystallization was the dominant microstructural phenomenon, and one instability domain with flow localization. The results of interpretation of flow stress curves and processing map were verified by the microstructure observations. There are two optimum conditions for hot working of this alloy with efficiency peak of 0.36: the first is at 1150 °C for a strain rate of 1 s^?1 that produces a fine grained microstructure. The second is at 1200 °C for a strain rate of 0.01 s^?1 that produces a coarse grained microstructure.     

Hot Deformation Characteristics of 13Cr-4Ni Stainless Steel Using Constitutive Equation and Processing Map

Hot compression tests were performed to study the hot deformation characteristics of 13Cr-4Ni stainless steel. The tests were performed in the strain rate range of 0.001-10 s^?1 and temperature range of 900-1100 °C using Gleeble® 3800 simulator. A constitutive equation of Arrhenius type was established based on the experimental data to calculate the different material constants, and average value of apparent activation energy was found to be 444 kJ/mol. Zener-Hollomon parameter, Z, was estimated in order to characterize the flow stress behavior. Power dissipation and instability maps developed on the basis of dynamic materials model for true strain of 0.5 show optimum hot working conditions corresponding to peak efficiency range of about 28-32%. These lie in the temperature range of 950-1025 °C and corresponding strain rate range of 0.001-0.01 s^?1 and in the temperature range of 1050-1100 °C and corresponding strain rate range of 0.01-0.1 s^?1. The flow characteristics in these conditions show dynamic recrystallization behavior. The microstructures are correlated to the different stability domains indicated in the processing map.     

Characterization of hot deformation and microstructure evolution of a new metastable β titanium alloy

The hot deformation characteristics of as-forged Ti?3.5Al?5Mo?6V?3Cr?2Sn?0.5Fe?0.1B?0.1C alloy within a temperature range from 750 to 910 °C and a strain rate range from 0.001 to 1 s^?1 were investigated by hot compression tests. The stress?strain curves show that the flow stress decreases with the increase of temperature and the decrease of strain rate. The microstructure is sensitive to deformation parameters. The dynamic recrystallization (DRX) grains appear while the temperature reaches 790 °C at a constant strain rate of 0.001 s^?1 and strain rate is not higher than 0.1 s^?1 at a constant temperature of 910 °C. The work-hardening rate θ is calculated and it is found that DRX prefers to happen at high temperature and low strain rate. The constitutive equation and processing map were obtained. The average activation energy of the alloy is 242.78 kJ/mol and there are few unstable regions on the processing map, which indicates excellent hot workability. At the strain rate of 0.1 s^?1, the stress?strain curves show an abnormal shape where there are two stress peaks simultaneously. This can be attributed to the alternation of hardening effect, which results from the continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) and the rotation of DRX grains, and dynamic softening mechanism.     

Cu-Ni-Si-P合金热变形行为及热加工图

采用高温等温压缩试验,对Cu?Ni?Si?P合金在应变速率0.01~5?1、变形温度600~800°C条件下的高温变形行为进行了研究,得出了该合金热压缩变形时的热变形激活能Q和本构方程。根据实验数据与热加工工艺参数构建了该合金的热加工图,利用热加工图对该合金在热变形过程中的热变形工艺参数进行了优化,并利用热加工图分析了该合金的高温组织变化。热变形过程中Cu?Ni?Si?P合金的流变应力随着变形温度的升高而降低,随着应变速率的提高而增大,该合金的动态再结晶温度为700°C。该合金热变形过程中的热变形激活能Q为485.6 kJ/mol。通过分析合金在应变为0.3和0.5时的热加工图得出该合金的安全加工区域的温度为750~800°C,应变速率为0.01~0.1 s?1。通过合金热变形过程中高温显微组织的观察,其组织规律很好地符合热加工图所预测的组织规律。     

Hot Deformation Behavior and Processing Maps of 2099 Al-Li Alloy

Hot deformation behavior and processing maps of the 2099 Al-Li alloy are investigated by tensile test at the temperature range from 250 to 450 °C and the strain rate range from 0.001 to 5.0 s^?1. The typical true stress-true strain curves show that the flow stress increases with increasing the strain rate and decreasing the deforming temperature. All curves exhibit rapid work hardening at an initial stage of strain followed by remarkable dynamic softening. Based on the flow stress behavior, the processing maps are calculated and analyzed according to the dynamic materials model (DMM). The processing maps exhibit an instability domain in the temperature and strain rate ranges: T = 250-260 °C and \(\dot{\upvarepsilon }\)  = 0.1-0.5 s^?1. The maps also exhibit an optimum hot working condition in the stability domain that occurs in the temperature of 400 °C for a strain rate of 0.001 s^?1 and having a maximum efficiency of 60%. The microstructural examinations exhibit the occurrence of dynamic recovery (DRV) during hot deformation of the 2099 alloy which is the dominant softening mechanism in the alloy. The fracture behavior changes from a brittle fracture to a ductile fracture as strain rate decreases and temperature increases.     

Hot Deformation and Processing Map of Pb-Mg-10Al-1B Alloy

The hot deformation behavior of the novel Pb-Mg-10Al-1B alloy has been investigated by hot compressive tests in the temperature range from 453 to 613 K within the strain rate range of 0.01-1 s^?1 using a Gleeble-1500 thermal simulator testing machine. The results show that the flow stress increases with increasing strain rate and decreasing temperature. The hot deformation behavior can be described by a constitutive equation with hyperbolic sine function or Zener-Hollomon parameter. The hot deformation activation energy of Pb-Mg-10Al-1B alloy is 151.2543 kJ/mol. The processing map at the strain of 0.4 exhibits an instable deformation domain of 460-520 K at 0.06-1 s^?1. According to the processing map, the optimum hot-working conditions for Pb-Mg-Al-B alloy are 573 K and 0.01 s^?1.     

Characteristics of High-Temperature Deformation Behavior of Ti-45Al-2Cr-3Ta-0.5W Alloy

High-temperature deformation behavior tests of as-cast Ti-45Al-2Cr-3Ta-0.5W alloy were conducted over a wide range of strain rates (0.001-1.0 s^?1) and temperatures (1150-1300 °C). The flow curves for the current alloy exhibited sharp peaks at low strain levels, followed by pronounced work hardening and flow localization at high strain levels. Phenomenological analysis of the strain rate and temperature dependence of peak stress data yielded an average value of the strain rate sensitivity equal to 0.25 and an apparent activation energy of ~420 kJ/mol. Processing maps were established under different deformation conditions, and the optimal condition for hot work on this material was determined to be 1250 °C/0.001 s^?1. The stable deformation region was also found to decrease with increasing strain. Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) was the major softening mechanism controlling the growth of grains at the grain boundary. Meanwhile, local globularization and dynamic recovery (DR) were the main softening mechanisms in the lamellar colony. When deformed at higher temperatures (~1300 °C), the cyclic DRX and DR appeared to dominate the deformation. Moreover, the evolution of the β phase during hot deformation played an important role in the dynamic softening of the alloy.     

Thermomechanical Characterization of Mg-9Al-1Zn Alloy Using Power Dissipation Maps

A processing map is developed on the basis of the Dynamic Material Model for Mg-9Al-1Zn. The model considers the work piece as a dissipator of power and power loss variation with temperature and strain rate constitutes the power dissipation map. To this end, the thermomechanical (i.e., hot compression) characteristics of a Mg-9Al-1Zn alloy was studied in the temperature range of 250-425 °C and strain rates of 0.001-1 s^?1. The strain rate sensitivity (m), power dissipation efficiency (η), and instability parameter (ξ) are computed based on the experimental hot compression data. The deformation mechanisms of different regions in the maps are analyzed and corresponding microstructures are investigated. The processing map of Mg-9Al-1Zn alloy exhibits five workability domains. Dynamic recrystallization (DRX) was observed in three of the domains, while in the two other domains grain boundary sliding, twining, and precipitation are the dominant mechanisms. The optimum hot working conditions of Mg-9Al-1Zn alloy are located in the two domains where DRX takes place. They correspond to 375 °C/0.001 s^?1 and 380 °C/1 s^?1 with peak efficiency of 42 and 36%, respectively.     

Flow stress and dynamic recrystallization behavior of Al-9Mg-1.1Li-0.5Mn alloy during hot compression process

The flow stress behavior of spray-formed Al-9Mg-1.1Li-0.5Mn alloy was studied using thermal simulation tests on a Gleeble-3500 machine over deformation temperature range of 300-450 °C and strain rate of 0.01-10 s^?1. The microstructural evolution of the alloy during the hot compression process was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron back scatter diffractometry (EBSD). The results show that the flow stress behavior and microstructural evolution are sensitive to deformation parameters. The peak stress level, steady flow stress, dislocation density and amount of substructures of the alloy increase with decreasing deformation temperature and increasing strain rate. Conversely, the high angle grain boundary area increases, the grain boundary is in serrated shape and the dynamic recrystallization in the alloy occurs. The microstructure of the alloy is fibrous-like and the main softening mechanism is dynamic recovery during steady deformation state. The flow stress behavior can be represented by the Zener-Hollomon parameter Z in the hyperbolic sine equation with the hot deformation activation energy of 184.2538 kJ/mol. The constitutive equation and the hot processing map were established. The hot processing map exhibits that the optimum processing conditions for Al-9Mg-1.1Li-0.5Mn alloy are in deformation temperature range from 380 to 450 °C and strain rate range from 0.01 to 0.1 s^?1.     

ZL270LF铝合金的热变形行为与组织演变

通过热压缩实验研究了ZL270LF铝合金在变形量为70%,温度为300~550 ℃,应变速率为 0.01~10 s^-1范围的热变形行为,建立了流变应力本构方程模型,绘制出了二维热加工图,确定了最佳热加工区域,采用电子背散射衍射（EBSD）和透射电子显微镜（TEM）技术研究了该合金的组织演变规律。结果表明：ZL270LF铝合金的流变应力随变形温度的升高和应变速率的降低而降低,热变形激活能为309.05 kJ/mol,最优热加工区为温度470~530 ℃、应变速率为0.01~1 s^-1。该合金在热变形过程中存在3种不同的DRX机制,即连续动态再结晶（CDRX）、不连续动态再结晶（DDRX）和几何动态再结晶（GDRX）,其中CDRX是ZL270LF铝合金动态再结晶的主要机制。     

Flow curve correction and processing map of 2050 Al–Li alloy

Hot compression tests of 2050 Al–Li alloy were performed in the deformation temperature range of 340–500 °C and strain rate range of 0.001–10 s^–1 to investigate the hot deformation behavior of the alloy. The effects of friction and temperature difference on flow stress were analyzed and the flow curves were corrected. Based on the dynamic material model, processing map at a strain of 0.5 was established. The grain structure of the compressed samples was observed using optical microscopy. The results show that friction and temperature variation during the hot compression have significant influences on flow stress. The optimum processing domains are in the temperature range from 370 to 430 °C with the strain rate range from 0.01 to 0.001 s^–1, and in the temperature range from 440 to 500 °C with the strain rate range from 0.3 to 0.01 s^–1; the flow instable region is located at high strain rates (3–10 s^–1) in the entire temperature range. Dynamic recovery (DRV) and dynamic recrystallization (DRX) are the main deformation mechanisms of the 2050 alloy in the stable domains, whereas the alloy exhibits flow localization in the instable region.     

铸态粗晶Ti-5553钛合金高温变形行为与机理研究

本文借助Gleeble-3800热模拟试验机系统地研究了铸态粗晶Ti-5553合金在温度700 ℃~1100 ℃、应变速率为0.001 s_^-1~10 s_^-1条件下的高温变形行为。研究结果表明合金的流变应力对变形温度和速率都有强敏感性,流变软化过程也随变形参数的改变呈现出不同的模式。通过经典的动力学模型,建立了合金高温变形的本构关系和激活能分布图,进一步基于动态材料模型构建了合金的热加工图并实现了对不同加工区间变形机制的识别。合金在低温区(700 ℃)和高速率区( 1 s_^-1)均展现出失稳变形的特征,包括外部开裂、绝热剪切带、局部流变等机制,在实际加工中应对这些加工区域进行规避。合金在800 ℃及中低速率( 0.1 s_^-1)变形下的主导机制为α相的动态析出,在中高温(900 ℃-1100 ℃)及中低速率变形下的主导机制为动态回复与动态再结晶的结合。此外,合金在高温较低应变速率(1100 ℃/0.01 s_^-1)条件的变形中表现出大范围动态再结晶的行为特点并伴随稳定的流变软化,因此此条件附近的参数区间被认定为该合金的最优加工窗口,应在实际加工中给予优先考虑。     

High temperature deformation and processing map of a NiTi intermetallic alloy

The deformation behavior of a 49.8 Ni-50.2 Ti (at pct) alloy was investigated using the hot compression test in the temperature range of 700 °C–1100 °C, and strain rate of 0.001 s^?1 to 1 s^?1. The hot tensile test of the alloy was also considered to assist explaining the related deformation mechanism within the same temperature range and the strain rate of 0.1 s^?1. The processing map of the alloy was developed to evaluate the efficiency of hot deformation and to identify the instability regions of the flow. The peak efficiency of 24–28% was achieved at temperature range of 900 °C–1000 °C, and strain rates higher than 0.01 s^?1 in the processing map. The hot ductility and the deformation efficiency of the alloy exhibit almost similar variation with temperature, showing maximum at temperature range of 900 °C–1000 °C and minimum at 700 °C and 1100 °C. Besides, the minimum hot ductility lies in the instability regions of the processing map. The peak efficiency of 28% and microstructural analysis suggests that dynamic recovery (DRV) can occur during hot working of the alloy. At strain rates higher than 0.1 s^?1, the peak efficiency domain shifts from the temperature range of 850 °C–1000 °C to lower temperature range of 800 °C–950 °C which is desirable for hot working of the NiTi alloy. The regions of flow instability have been observed at high Z values and at low temperature of 700 °C and low strain rate of 0.001 s^?1. Further instability region has been found at temperature of 1000 °C and strain rates higher than 1 s^?1 and at temperature of 1100 °C and all range of strain rates.     

35% SiC_p/2024A1复合材料的热变形行为(英文)

采用Gleeble-1500D热模拟试验机,对35%SiCp/2024A1复合材料在温度350~500°C、应变速率0.01~10s-1的条件下进行热压缩试验,研究该复合材料的热变形行为与热加工特征,建立热变形本构方程和加工图。结果表明,35%SiCp/2024A1复合材料的流变应力随着温度的升高而降低,随着应变速率的增大而升高,说明该复合材料是正应变速率敏感材料,其热压缩变形时的流变应力可采用Zener-Hollomon参数的双曲正弦形式来描述;在本实验条件下平均热变形激活能为225.4 kJ/mol。为了证实其潜在的可加工性,对加工图中的稳定区和失稳区进行标识,并通过微观组织得到验证。综合考虑热加工图和显微组织,得到变形温度500°C、应变速率0.1~1 s-1是复合材料适宜的热变形条件。