Investigation into the Fabrication Possibility of the Boron–Aluminum Sheet Rolling of Increased Strength without Using Homogenization and Quenching

Al–Cu–Mn (Zr) aluminum alloys possess high strength and manufacturability without operations of thermal treatment (TT). In order to investigate the fabrication possibility of the aluminum boron-containing alloy in the form of sheet rolling with an increased strength without TT, Al–2% Cu–1.5% Mn–2% B and Al–2% Cu–1.5% Mn–0.4% Zr–2% B alloys are prepared. To exclude the precipitation of refractory boride particles, smelting is performed in a RELTEK induction furnace providing intense melt stirring. The smelting temperature is 950–1000°C. Pouring is performed into graphite molds 40 × 120 × 200 mm in size. It is established using computational methods (Thermo-Calc) that manganese forms complex borides with aluminum and zirconium at the smelting temperature; herewith, a sufficient amount of manganese remains in liquid, while zirconium is almost absent. The formation of AlB₂Mn₂ complex boride is proven; however, the amount of manganese remaining in the solid solution is sufficient to form the particles of the Al₂₀Cu₂Mn₃ phase in amounts of up to 7 wt %. Boron stimulates the isolation of Al₃Zr primary crystals in the alloy with zirconium; in connection with this, an amount of zirconium insufficient for hardening remains in the aluminum solid solution. The possibility of fabricating thin-sheet rolling with a thickness smaller than 0.3 mm with homogeneously distributed accumulations of the boride phase with a particle size smaller than 10 μm is shown. A high strength level (up to 543 MPa) is attained without using quenching and aging due to the precipitation of dispersoids of the Al₂₀Cu₂Mn₃ phase during hot deformation (t = 450°C).     

A study of coarsening, recrystallization, and morphology of microstructure in Al-Sc-(Zr)-(Mg) alloys

Minor additions of Sc are effective in controlling the recrystallization resistance of 5xxx, 2xxx, and 7xxx aluminum. The addition of Sc to aluminum results in the rapid precipitation of homogeneously distributed Al₃Sc dispersoids, which are coherent with the matrix and have the L1₂ structure. The presence of Al₃Sc dispersoids increases the recrystallization resistance of wrought alloys. The higher coarsening rate of Al₃Sc compared to that of Al₃Zr may limit its applications as a single ancillary addition. When both scandium and zirconium are used in the same alloy, Al₃(Sc_1-x , Zr _x ) dispersoids form. These dispersoids are more effective recrystallization inhibitors than either Al₃Sc or Al₃Zr. The Al₃(Sc_1-x , Zr _x ) dispersoids precipitate more rapidly than Al₃Zr but have a slower coarsening rate than Al₃Sc. Furthermore, the distribution of Al₃(Sc_1-x , Zr _x ) is significantly more homogeneous than Al₃Zr. It was also established that alloys containing up to 3.5Mg showed improvement in recrystallization resistance when both Sc and Zr were present. Several morphologies of Al₃Sc and Al₃(Sc_1-x , Zr _x ) were also observed.     

Effect of post-homogenisation cooling rate and Mn addition on Mg2Si precipitation and hot workability of AA6060 alloys

ABSTRACT

The microstructure evolution for different post-homogenisation cooling rates and the flow stress behaviour in direct chill cast AA6060 alloys were studied. Results revealed that decreasing cooling rates reduced the flow stress owing to the precipitation of Mg₂Si and reduction of the solid solution level. Micro-alloying of Mn generated a distribution of α-Al(FeMn)Si dispersoids during the homogenisation, with the size and number density decreasing at higher homogenisation temperatures. TEM studies confirmed that the dispersoids acted as favourable nucleation sites for Mg₂Si and significantly promoted the precipitation of Mg₂Si during subsequent cooling. The high-temperature flow stress was controlled by the solid solution levels of Mg, Si, and Mn resulting from the interaction between dispersoids and Mg₂Si. The combination of the Mn addition, a low cooling rate, and a low homogenisation temperature provided the lowest flow stress, which improved the hot workability of the alloy and promoted ready dissolution of Mg₂Si during extrusion.     

Investigation into the Possibility of Fabricating Boraluminum Rolling of Increased Strength without Homogenization and Quenching

Aluminum alloys of the Al–Cu–Mn (Zr) system possess high strength and manufacturability without heat treatment (HT). In order to investigate the possibility of fabricating an aluminum boron-containing alloy in the form of sheet rolling with increased strength without the HT, Al–2% Cu–1.5% Mn–2% B and Al–2% Cu–1.5% Mn–0.4% Zr–2% B alloys are prepared. To exclude the deposition of refractory boride particles, smelting is performed in a RELTEK induction furnace providing intense melt stirring. The smelting temperature is 950–1000°C. Pouring is performed into 40 × 120 × 200 mm graphite molds. It is established using computational methods (Thermo-Calc) that manganese forms complex borides with aluminum and zirconium at the smelting temperature and a sufficient amount of manganese remains in liquid, while zirconium is almost absent in it. The formation of AlB₂Mn₂ complex boride is proved experimentally (scanning electron microscopy and micro X-ray spectral analysis), but the amount of manganese remaining in the solid solution is sufficient to form particles of the Al₂₀Cu₂Mn₃ phase in an amount reaching 7 wt %. Boron in the zirconium-containing alloy stimulates the isolation of primary crystals Al₃Zr, in connection with which an insufficient amount of zirconium remains in the aluminum solid solution for strengthening. The possibility of fabricating thin-sheet rolling smaller than 0.3 mm in thickness with uniformly distributed agglomerations of the boride phase with a particle size smaller than 10 µm is shown. A high level of strength (up to 543 MPa) is attained with no use of quenching or aging due to the isolation of dispersoids of the Al₂₀Cu₂Mn₃ phase during hot deformation (t = 450°C).     

Effect of thermal and thermo-mechanical processing on the properties of Al-Mg alloys

Results are presented of the influence of thermal and thermo-mechanical processing on the tensile strength and stress corrosion resistance of Al-Mg alloys characterized by different combinations of the ancillary elements Cr, Mn and Zr. As a result of the processes described, the final wrought products exhibit higher yield strengths for a given stress corrosion resistance than conventional materials. This is attributed to the favorable distribution of dislocations and precipitates that is induced by the treatment. The combination of ancil lary elements is an important factor for optimizing the metallurgical properties of the alloys; evidence is given for the role played by the dispersoids containing Cr, Mn and Zr on both the grain structure and the distribution of β(Mp₂Al₃) particles.     

Microstructure-property relationships of two AI-3Li-2Cu-0.2Zr-XCd alloys

The microstructure and tensile properties of two A1-3 wt pct Li-2 wt pct Cu-0.2 wt pct Zr alloys, one Cd-free and one containing 0.2 wt pct Cd, have been investigated. The Cd-free alloy remained unrecrystallized for all solutionizing treatments studied, whereas a special treatment had to be developed to prevent recrystallization during solutionizing of the 0.2 wt pct Cd alloy. In combination with cadmium, zirconium either enters into, or nucleates on, the course Al₇Cu₂Fe and T₂ phases during high temperature annealing. This reduces the volume fraction of small coherent Al₃Zr particles in the matrix which normally inhibits recrystallization. Consequently, a low temperature anneal to precipitate Al₃Zr is necessary prior to high temperature solutionizing in order to prevent recrystallization in the Cd-containing alloy. Unlike its effect in lower lithium, higher copper content aluminum alloys, cadmium does not significantly affect the nucleation of the strengthening precipitates. If anything, cadmium has a detrimental effect on the age hardening response of this alloy, since it increases the formation of coarse Al-Cu-Li equilibrium phases at grain and subgrain boundaries and thus removes some of the copper and lithium from participating in the formation of the strengthening precipitates T₁ and δ′. Subgrain boundary fracture occurred during tensile tests of both alloys in the unrecrystallized condition; however, transgranular fracture occurred in tests of the partially recrystallized 0.2 wt pct Cd alloy. Both types of fractures are believed due to a form of strain localization associated with precipitate free zones and shearable precipitates. Formerly with the Fracture and Fatigue Research Laboratory, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA     

On the embrittlement of a rapidly solidified Al-Fe-V-Si alloy after high-Temperature exposure

The effects of high-temperature exposure on the mechanical properties and the microstructure of a rapidly solidified Al-Fe-V-Si alloy were examined in order to identify the critical factors controlling the thermal stability of the alloy, particularly at temperatures above 400 °C. Room-temperature (RT) tensile tests were conducted on specimens exposed to temperatures ranging from 150 °C to 482 °C for 100 hours. The microstructure of the extrusion is characterized by a banded structure consisting of a layer containing fine silicide dispersoids and a layer containing coarse silicide dispersoids, which is a replication of the microstructure of the melt-spun ribbon. The alloy did not show any significant change in tensile properties after 100 hours exposure up to 427 °C due to the stability of the microstructure. However, after exposure above 427 °C, tensile elongation decreased significantly and the brittle cleavage regions were observed on the fracture surface. The occurrence of brittle cleavage fracture is due to the presence of coarse equilibrium Al₁₃Fe₄ or Al₃Fe phase, which forms by the transformation of the coarse silicide dispersoids above 427 °C.     

Structure-property relationships in AlLiCuMgAgZr alloy X2095

Although aluminum-lithium alloys showed initial promise for aerospace applications, implementation has not proceeded swiftly. In this study, efforts were made to design and develop microstructures with good fracture and fatigue crack propagation resistance to achieve a better balance of mechanical properties in the high strength alloy X2095. Lower aging temperatures were employed, resulting in precipitation of shearable δ' (Al₃Li) particles and reduced subgrain boundary T₁ precipitation. Although fracture toughness was not significantly altered in the 1.6 Li variant, improvements approaching 50% were achieved in the 1.3 Li alloy. Intrinsic fatigue crack propagation resistance was also slightly improved due to reduced environmental interactions. These improvements were made without altering the 660 MPa yield strength.     

Evolution of microstructure and tensile strength of rapidly solidified Al-4.7 pct Zn-2.5 pct Mg-0.25 pct Zr-X wt pct Mn alloys

Analytical transmission electron microscopy and thermal analysis of as-extruded Al-4.7 pct Zn-2.5 pct Mg-0.2 pct Zr-X wt pct Mn alloys, with Mn contents ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 wt pct, were carried out to elucidate the microstructural change and accompanying mechanical properties during subsequent heat treatments. The as-extruded alloy was fabricated from rapidly solidified powder and consisted of a fine, metastable manganese dispersoid and the ternary eutectic T phase (Al₂Mg₃Zn₃). Solution heat treatment resulted in the formation of the stable Al₆Mn phase and complete dissolution of the T phase. Formation of stable Al₆Mn was made by two routes: by phase transition from metastable Mn dispersoids which already existed, and from the supersaturated solid solution by homogeneous nucleation. The density of the Al₆Mn phase increased with the addition of manganese, while the shape and average size remained unchanged. A significant increase in the hardness was observed to coincide with the formation of the Al₆Mn phase. Similarly, the tensile strength increased further after the aging treatment, and the increment was constant over the content of Mn in the alloy, which was explained by the contribution from the same amount of precipitates, MgZn₂. Results of thermal analysis indicated that the dissolution of the T phase started near 180 °C and that formation of Al₆Mn occurred at about 400 °C, suggesting that further enhancement of strength is possible with the modification of the heat-treatment schedule.     

Powder metallurgy approach for control of microstructure and properties in high strength aluminum alloys

High-strength products made from atomized Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Co alloy powders have good combinations of strength, ductility, resistance to stress-corrosion cracking and fracture toughness. Powder Metallurgy (PJM) methods produce fine metallurgical structures and compositions which cannot be produced by Ingot Metallurgy (IJM) methods. Fine structures result from very rapid solidification and from the effect of fine dispersoids in restricting grain growth. Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) performance is favored by grain morphology of PJM products. Co₂Al₉ particles in PJM products are 0.02 to 2.0 μm spheroids occurring frequently on grain boundaries where they may serve several functions in slowing SCC attack. Oxide particles are irregular shapes, 0.01 to 0.04 μm in size, occurring in clusters at grain boundaries and in grain bodies. Some of the oxide particles are magnesium oxide and alter the environment in a SCC crack to arrest attack. Porosity is not a significant factor in the structure of PJM products made by a vacuum compacting process. P/M wrought products have superior combinations of high strength and stress-corrosion cracking resistance compared to IJM 7075 and 7050 alloys. While equaling the fracture toughness of 7075 alloy, the PJM products at present have somewhat lower fracture toughness than 7050 alloy, due in part to a larger amount of second-phase particles in the form of Co₂Al₉ and oxide.     

Full or partial replacement of Y by rare-earth and some other elements in the Al85Y8Ni5Co2 alloy

The present paper aims to report the effect of partial or full replacement of Y in the Al₈₅Y₈Ni₅Co₂ alloy by other rare-earth (RE) metals. Influence of small amount of Zr, Pd or Cu additions was also studied for comparison as these elements also have a negative heat of mixing with Al. The studied alloys were produced by rapid solidification of the melt. Glass-forming ability, crystallization behaviour and stability of the supercooled liquid have been studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). It has been found that additions of RE metals have not caused critical changes of the properties of the Al₈₅Y₈Ni₅Co₂ alloy while small amount of Pd or Cu additions significantly change its crystallization behaviour and destabilize the supercooled liquid. Addition of more than about 3 at.% of Zr causes precipitation of the primary Al₃Zr phase during rapid solidification.     

Interaction Between Eutectic Intermetallic Particles and Dispersoids in the 3003 Aluminum Alloy During Homogenization Treatments

The transformation of primary eutectic Al₆(Mn,Fe) intermetallics into α-Al(Mn,Fe)Si and the precipitation of dispersoids were studied in the commercial in the form of 3003 series cast aluminum alloys, mainly under isothermal conditions between 673 K and 873 K (400 °C and 600 °C). After solidification, both the solid solution and the primary eutectic intermetallics were far from equilibrium. During further heat treatment, the precipitation of fine dispersoids and eutectoid transformation of the primary eutectic particles occurred simultaneously. Having characterized these evolutions under industrial homogenization conditions, the evolution of the microstructure (in terms of its nature, and the quantity, size, and chemical composition of the phases) was characterized during isothermal heat treatment, using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations, quantitative image analysis, and transmission electron microscopy–energy-dispersive spectroscopy (TEM-EDS). The experimental results are analyzed, and changes in chemical composition are discussed and compared with the calculated equilibrium compositions. It is shown that (1) the chemical composition of eutectic intermetallics evolves and tends toward an equilibrium composition; (2) during precipitation, the chemical composition of dispersoids is constant, and close to the expected equilibrium composition when the initial mean composition of the solidification cell is taken into account; (3) after the formation of dispersoids, the quantity of α-Al(Mn,Fe)Si formed from the initial eutectic intermetallics increased, with the kinetics being controlled by long-range manganese diffusion; and (4) the latter evolution is associated with the dissolution of dispersoids located close to eutectic intermetallics and contributes to the formation of a dispersoid-free zone (DFZ).     

The influence of Mn dispersoid content and stress state on ductile fracture of 2134 type Al alloys

Ductile fracture studies have been conducted on four high purity AlCuMgZr (2134 type) alloys containing 0, 0.31. 0.61 and 1.02 wt% Mn in the under and overaged conditions having similar yield strengths. The second phase particle content, i.e, Mn rich dispersoids and Mn containing large particles, increased with increasing Mn content. In both aging conditions maximum ductility and toughness were observed for the 0.31% Mn alloy and minimum values were observed for the 1.02% Mn alloy, The largest void content or damage accumulation due to void nucleation and growth at any strain level occurred in the 1.02% Mn alloy, consistent with ductility values. The 0.31% Mn alloy showed the highest ductility in both aging conditions, Although the void volume fractions for the 0.31% Mn alloy were similar to those of the 1.02% Mn alloy, accumulation occurred at higher strains. The void nucleation and growth data and microstructural analysis suggest that the 0.31% Mn additions provide sufficient submicrometer Mn-dispersoids to homogenize slip without producing large Mn-rich primary particles which decrease ductility. Ductility was observed to decrease with increasing triaxial constraint which increased void volume fraction and void growth rates. However, the degree of triaxiality had little or no effect on the nucleation rate of voids.     

Microstructural characterization of secondary-phase particles in a hot-deformed Al-Cu-Mg-Zr alloy

Torsion tests, on a 2014 + 0.13Zr alloy, were performed at temperatures in the range 573 to 773 K under strain rates ranging from 10⁻³ to 10 s⁻¹. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) inspection was performed in order to establish the role of the hot deformation on the hardening second-phase particles. The pinning effect of Al₃Zr particles was also investigated. At the testing temperatures, the Al₃Zr particles were stable, and no significant statistic changes, in terms of density and mean size, occurred during the tests. Small Al₃Zr dispersoid particles inhibit recrystallization by pinning the grain and subgrain boundaries during hot deformation. Yet, they are particularly resistant to dislocation shear microstructure mechanism. Grains were elongated and contained a large number of sub-grains a few microns in width.     

Powder metallurgy approach for control of microstructure and properties in high strength aluminum alloys

High-strength products made from atomized Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Co alloy powders have good combinations of strength, ductility, resistance to stress-corrosion cracking and fracture toughness. Powder Metallurgy (PJM) methods produce fine metallurgical structures and compositions which cannot be produced by Ingot Metallurgy (IJM) methods. Fine structures result from very rapid solidification and from the effect of fine dispersoids in restricting grain growth. Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) performance is favored by grain morphology of PJM products. Co₂Al₉ particles in PJM products are 0.02 to 2.0 μm spheroids occurring frequently on grain boundaries where they may serve several functions in slowing SCC attack. Oxide particles are irregular shapes, 0.01 to 0.04 μm in size, occurring in clusters at grain boundaries and in grain bodies. Some of the oxide particles are magnesium oxide and alter the environment in a SCC crack to arrest attack. Porosity is not a significant factor in the structure of PJM products made by a vacuum compacting process. P/M wrought products have superior combinations of high strength and stress-corrosion cracking resistance compared to IJM 7075 and 7050 alloys. While equaling the fracture toughness of 7075 alloy, the PJM products at present have somewhat lower fracture toughness than 7050 alloy, due in part to a larger amount of second-phase particles in the form of Co₂Al₉ and oxide. This paper is based on an invited presentation made at a symposium on “Advances in the Physical Metallurgy of Aluminum Alloys” held at the Spring Meeting of TMS-IMD in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on May 29 to June 1, 1973. The symposium was co-sponsored by the Physical Metallurgy Committee and the Non-Ferrous Metals Committee of TMS-IMD.     

Understanding the Co-Poisoning Effect of Zr and Ti on the Grain Refinement of Cast Aluminum Alloys

The “co-poisoning” effect between Zr and Ti (derived from Al-Zr and Al-Ti-B master alloy additions) on the grain refinement of cast aluminum alloys is studied from a crystallographic atom matching viewpoint. The edge-to-edge matching (E2EM) model has been used to investigate the possible “poisoning” phase containing Zr/Ti, Al, and Fe in commercial grade aluminum alloys. The results show that Al₃Ti is the most likely constituent to be poisoned due to the formation of an Al₈Fe₄Zr coating on its surface, since the Al₈Fe₄Zr phase has good crystallographic atom matching with Al₃Ti, but not with the aluminum matrix. Meanwhile, the partial dissolution of Al₃Zr nucleant particles to compensate for the loss of solute Zr aggravates the poisoning phenomenon. This proposed mechanism is consistent with most previous experimental observations and with existing practical solutions employed in the foundry.     

Oxide coarsening and its influence on recrystallization in a mechanically alloyed Fe-base oxide-dispersion-strengthened alloy

Analytical transmission electron microscopy has been used to determine whether yttria particles readily coarsen in oxide-dispersion-strengthened ferritic stainless alloy (PM2000), in an attempt to contribute to a model that explains the directionality of the microstructure observed when this material undergoes recrystallization under isothermal conditions. Likewise, the role of Al₂O₃ particles in the recrystallization processes of alumina-enriched PM2000 alloy has been studied via the addition of 1 wt pct Al₂O₃ particles as dispersoids. A carbon extraction replica technique was used to show that no coarsening of the yttria dispersion occurred even under exaggerated heat treatment at 1380 °C for 1 hour. By contrast, a significant ripening of alumina particles occurred apparently without influence on the recrystallization processes.     

Thermodynamics-Based Computational Design of Al-Mg-Sc-Zr Alloys

Alloying additions of Sc and Zr raise the yield strength of Al-Mg alloys significantly. We have studied the effects of Sc and Zr on the grain refinement and recrystallization resistance of Al-Mg alloys with the aid of computational alloy thermodynamics. The grain refinement potential has been assessed by Scheil–Gulliver simulations of solidification paths, while the recrystallization resistance (Zener drag) has been assessed by calculation of the precipitation driving forces of the Al₃Sc and Al₃Zr intermetallics. Microstructural performance indices have been derived, used to rank several alloy composition variants, and finally select the variant with the best combination of grain refinement and recrystallization resistance. The method can be used, with certain limitations, for a thermodynamics-based design of Al-Mg and other alloy compositions.     

Resistance-Spot-Welded AZ31 Magnesium Alloys: Part I. Dependence of Fusion Zone Microstructures on Second-Phase Particles

A comparison of microstructural features in resistance spot welds of two AZ31 magnesium (Mg) alloys, AZ31-SA (from supplier A) and AZ31-SB (from supplier B), with the same sheet thickness and welding conditions, was performed via optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). These alloys have similar chemical composition but different sizes of second-phase particles due to manufacturing process differences. Both columnar and equiaxed dendritic structures were observed in the weld fusion zones of these AZ31 SA and SB alloys. However, columnar dendritic grains were well developed and the width of the columnar dendritic zone (CDZ) was much larger in the SB alloy. In contrast, columnar grains were restricted within narrow strip regions, and equiaxed grains were promoted in the SA alloy. Microstructural examination showed that the as-received Mg alloys contained two sizes of Al₈Mn₅ second-phase particles. Submicron Al₈Mn₅ particles of 0.09 to 0.4 μm in length occured in both SA and SB alloys; however, larger Al₈Mn₅ particles of 4 to 10 μm in length were observed only in the SA alloy. The welding process did not have a great effect on the populations of Al₈Mn₅ particles in these AZ31 welds. The earlier columnar-equiaxed transition (CET) is believed to be related to the pre-existence of the coarse Al₈Mn₅ intermetallic phases in the SA alloy as an inoculant of α-Mg heterogeneous nucleation. This was revealed by the presence of Al₈Mn₅ particles at the origin of some equiaxed dendrites. Finally, the columnar grains of the SB alloy, which did not contain coarse second-phase particles, were efficiently restrained and equiaxed grains were found to be promoted by adding 10 μm-long Mn particles into the fusion zone during resistance spot welding (RSW).     

Microstructure and tensile properties of Fe-40 At. pct Al alloys with C,Zr, Hf,and B additions

The influence of small additions of C, Zr, and Hf, alone or in combination with B, on the microstructure and tensile behavior of substoichiometric FeAl was investigated. Tensile prop-erties were determined from 300 to 1100 K on powder which was consolidated by hot extrusion. All materials possessed some ductility at room temperature, although ternary additions generally reduced ductility compared to the binary alloy. Adding B to the C- and Zr-containing alloys changed the fracture mode from intergranular to transgranular and restored the ductility to ap-proximately 5 pct elongation. Additions of Zr and Hf increased strength up to about 900 K, which was related to a combination of grain refinement and precipitation hardening. Fe₆Al₆Zr and Fe₆Al₆Hf precipitates, both with identical body-centered tetragonal structures, were iden-tified as the principal second phases in these alloys. Strength decreased steadily as temperature increased above 700 K, as diffusion-assisted mechanisms, including grain boundary sliding and cavitation, became operative. Although all alloys had similar strengths at 1100 K, Hf additions significantly improved high-temperature ductility by suppressing cavitation.