Supporting green Urban mobility – The case of a small-scale autonomous hydrogen refuelling station

Nowadays, the development of hydrogen economy in the transportation sector is hindered by the principal barriers arising from the lack of adequate infrastructure and the small fleet of hydrogen-based road vehicles.This study investigates the potential of small-scale autonomous hydrogen refuelling stations with onsite production via an alkaline electrolysis apparatus powered by a small wind turbine. In this context, an urban area with promising wind resources has been selected. Based on the wind conditions and an indicative hydrogen demand for refuelling light-duty fuel cell electric vehicles such as bicycles, the sizing of the wind turbine and the electrolyser has been theoretically calculated. For supporting the daily hydrogen refuelling demand of the fuel cell electric bicycles, which is estimated at approximately 6 kg, it is calculated that a 50 kW wind turbine should be installed in order to power a 70 kW alkaline electrolyser for producing hydrogen. The capital cost of the hydrogen station is calculated at €248,130, while the retail price of the produced hydrogen is estimated to be more than 50.2 €/kg_H2 in order to achieve a positive internal rate of return.Ultimately, the present paper aims at delivering a feasibility study of a small-scale H₂ refuelling station for fuel cell bicycles in order to provide investors with initiatives to implement such schemes in urban environments where problems of low air quality and high traffic are intense.     

Assessing the operation and different refuelling cost scenarios of a fuel cell electric bicycle under low-pressure hydrogen storage

The transition to low- or zero-emission vehicles in the transportation sector is a challenging task toward meeting the greenhouse gas emission targets set by the majority of countries. One way of achieving this goal is to utilise hydrogen gas via fuel cell electric vehicles. This paper investigates the operation, driving range and refuelling process of a fuel cell electric bicycle. The methodology applied includes an estimation of the bike's range under different routes and riders, the riders' opinions and a financial evaluation of the hydrogen fuel cost compared to other urban vehicle alternatives. The results showed a minimum median range-to-energy consumption ratio of 20.5 km/kWh, while the maximum hydrogen cost was found to reach 0.025 €/km when refuelling the hydrogen bicycle in an autonomous hydrogen station. The outcome of this study indicates that the introduction of light-duty hydrogen vehicles in urban transportation may adequately meet the average daily driving distance of city residents.     

Design of a solar hydrogen refuelling station following the development of the first Croatian fuel cell powered bicycle to boost hydrogen urban mobility

Hydrogen refuelling stations are important for achieving sustainable hydrogen economy in low carbon transport and fuel cell electric vehicles. The solution presented in this paper provides us with a technology for producing carbon dioxide free hydrogen, which is an approach that goes beyond the existing large-scale hydrogen production technologies that use fossil fuel reforming. Hence, the main goal of this work was to design a hydrogen refuelling station to secure the autonomy of a hydrogen powered bicycle. The bicycle hydrogen system is equipped with a proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack of 300 W, a DC/DC converter, and a metal hydride storage tank of 350 NL of hydrogen. The hydrogen power system was made of readily available commercial components. The hydrogen station was designed as an off-grid system in which the installed proton exchange membrane electrolyzer is supplied with electric energy by direct conversion using photovoltaic cells. With the hydrogen flow rate of 2000 cc min⁻¹ the hydrogen station is expected to supply at least 5 bicycles to be used in 20 km long city tourist routes.     

The potential role of hydrogen as a sustainable transportation fuel to combat global warming

Hydrogen is recognized as a key source of the sustainable energy solutions. The transportation sector is known as one of the largest fuel consumers of the global energy market. Hydrogen can become a promising fuel for sustainable transportation by providing clean, reliable, safe, convenient, customer friendly, and affordable energy. In this study, the possibility of hydrogen as the major fuel for transportation systems is investigated comprehensively based on the recent data published in the literature. Due to its several characteristic advantages, such as energy density, abundance, ease of transportation, a wide variety of production methods from clean and renewable fuels with zero or minimal emissions; hydrogen appears to be a great chemical fuel which can potentially replace fossil fuel use in internal combustion engines. In order to take advantage of hydrogen as an internal combustion engine fuel, existing engines should be redesigned to avoid abnormal combustion. Hydrogen use in internal combustion engines could enhance system efficiencies, offer higher power outputs per vehicle, and emit lower amounts of greenhouse gases. Even though hydrogen-powered fuel cells have lower emissions than internal combustion engines, they require additional space and weight and they are generally more expensive. Therefore, the scope of this study is hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines. It is also highlighted that in order to become a truly sustainable and clean fuel, hydrogen should be produced from renewable energy and material resources with zero or minimal emissions at high efficiencies. In addition, in this study, conventional, hybrid, electric, biofuel, fuel cell, and hydrogen fueled ICE vehicles are comparatively assessed based on their CO₂ and SO₂ emissions, social cost of carbon, energy and exergy efficiencies, fuel consumption, fuel price, and driving range. The results show that when all of these criteria are taken into account, fuel cell vehicles have the highest average performance ranking (4.97/10), followed by hydrogen fueled ICEs (4.81/10) and biofuel vehicles (4.71/10). On the other hand, conventional vehicles have the lowest average performance ranking (1.21/10), followed by electric vehicles (4.24/10) and hybrid vehicles (4.53/10).     

Large-scale long-distance land-based hydrogen transportation systems: A comparative techno-economic and greenhouse gas emission assessment

Interest in hydrogen as an energy carrier is growing as countries look to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in hard-to-abate sectors. Previous works have focused on hydrogen production, well-to-wheel analysis of fuel cell vehicles, and vehicle refuelling costs and emissions. These studies use high-level estimates for the hydrogen transportation systems that lack sufficient granularity for techno-economic and GHG emissions analysis. In this work, we assess and compare the unit costs and emission footprints (direct and indirect) of 32 systems for hydrogen transportation. Process-based models were used to examine the transportation of pure hydrogen (hydrogen pipeline and truck transport of gaseous and liquified hydrogen), hydrogen-natural gas blends (pipeline), ammonia (pipeline), and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (pipeline and rail). We used sensitivity and uncertainty analyses to determine the parameters impacting the cost and emission estimates. At 1000 km, the pure hydrogen pipelines have a levelized cost of $0.66/kg H₂ and a GHG footprint of 595 gCO₂eq/kg H₂. At 1000 km, ammonia, liquid organic hydrogen carrier, and truck transport scenarios are more than twice as expensive as pure hydrogen pipeline and hythane, and more than 1.5 times as expensive at 3000 km. The GHG emission footprints of pure hydrogen pipeline transport and ammonia transport are comparable, whereas all other transport systems are more than twice as high. These results may be informative for government agencies developing policies around clean hydrogen internationally.     

Refuelling scenarios of a light urban fuel cell vehicle with metal hydride hydrogen storage. Comparison with compressed hydrogen storage counterpart

The high price of hydrogen fuel in the fuel cell vehicle refuelling market is highly dependent on the one hand from the production costs of hydrogen and on the other from the capital cost of a hydrogen refuelling station's components to support a safe and adequate refuelling process of contemporary fuel cell vehicles. The hydrogen storage technology dominated in the vehicle sector is currently based on high-pressure compressed hydrogen tanks to extend as much as possible the driving range of the vehicles. However, this technology mandates the use of large hydrogen compression and cooling systems as part of the refuelling infrastructure that consequently increase the final cost of the fuel. This study investigated the prospects of lowering the refuelling cost of small urban hydrogen vehicles through the utilisation of metal hydride hydrogen storage. The results showed that for low compression hydrogen storage, metal hydride storage is in favour in terms of the dispensed hydrogen fuel price, while its weight is highly comparable to the one of a compressed hydrogen tank. The final refuelling cost from the consumer's perspective however was found to be higher than the compressed gas due to the increased hydrogen quantity required to be stored in fully empty metal hydride tanks to meet the same demand.     

Hydrogen utilization in various transportation modes with emissions comparisons for Ontario, Canada

The paper compares the atmospheric emissions of different hydrogen production scenarios for various transportation modes in a case study for Ontario, Canada. Hydrogen demand scenarios are based on historical data of the various transportation modes. Predicting the CO₂ emissions for a market with hydrogen vehicles against a purely fossil fuel market outlines the benefits of utilizing hydrogen. For road vehicles less than 4,500 kg in weight, emissions from a thermochemical production fraction of 20% produced a 9.8% decrease in CO₂ emissions (or over 3,000 kilotonnes), compared to a 100% fossil fuel market. When these studies are applied to other transportation modes such as rail, air and marine, similar trends are observed. The largest benefits occur from automobiles and rail, where increasing carbon emission trends were reversed due to the increasing hydrogen propulsion base. Further decreases in carbon dioxide emissions could be realized by lower emitting production sources such as nuclear thermochemical production and electrolysis from wind, solar, and hydro.     

Optimal design of wind-powered hydrogen refuelling station for some selected cities of South Africa

The transport sector is considered as one of the sectors producing high carbon emissions worldwide due to the use of fossil fuels. Hydrogen is a non-toxic energy carrier that could serve as a good alternative to fossil fuels. The use of hydrogen vehicles could help reduce carbon emissions thereby cutting down on greenhouse gases and environmental pollution. This could largely be achieved when hydrogen is produced from renewable energy sources and is easily accessible through a widespread network of hydrogen refuelling stations. In this study, the techno-economic assessment was performed for a wind-powered hydrogen refuelling station in seven cities of South Africa. The aim is to determine the optimum configuration of a hydrogen refuelling station powered by wind energy resources for each of the cities as well as to determine their economic viability and carbon emission reduction capability. The stations were designed to cater for 25 hydrogen vehicles every day, each with a 5 kg tank capacity. The results show that a wind-powered hydrogen refuelling station is viable in South Africa with the cost of hydrogen production ranging from 6.34 $/kg to 8.97 $/kg. These costs are competitive when compared to other costs of hydrogen production around the world. The cities located in the coastal region of South Africa are more promising for siting wind powered-hydrogen refuelling station compared to the cities located on the mainland. The hydrogen refuelling stations could reduce the CO₂ and CO emissions by 73.95 tons and 0.133 tons per annum, respectively.     

Impact of urban development on residents’ public transportation travel energy consumption in China: An analysis of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles alternatives

Urban development has an important influence on the energy consumption of transportation. To develop public transportation is one of the important ways to decrease the energy consumption of urban transportation. It is very urgent to upgrade technology to reduce the energy consumption and emissions of the vehicles constantly. The popularization of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is the trend of the future automobile industry, which can effectively reduce traffic energy consumption and alleviate urban pollution. This article analyzes the impact of urban development on public transport and private transportation energy consumption from 2013 to 2015; and uses hydrogen fuel cell vehicles alternatives in urban public transport as a scenario. It shows that urban economic development can effectively reduce public transport. Population growth will increase greatly energy consumption of public transport, while larger cities with reasonable spatial density can reduce traffic energy consumption. Moreover, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles can effectively reduce the energy consumption and pollution emissions of urban transportation during operating. Based on the above conclusions, this article will eventually provide targeted recommendations for the development of Chinese cities, public transport, and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.     

How risky is the introduction of fuel cell electric vehicles in a Mediterranean town?

The incorporation of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) in public transport is a fundamental step towards the minimization of the emissions due to transportation globally. In-depth studies are required regarding the potential risk from the storage of hydrogen, the transportation of hydrogen to refuelling stations and the refuelling procedure. Thus, it is a prerequisite to establish a holistic baseline which is related to FCEV safety during operation/maintenance, especially to a country in which the sales of these types of vehicles are significantly low. This paper suggests the employment of operational risk management methodology. Relevant experts and stakeholders requested to fill out an ‘‘Event-Probability Matrix’’ per scenario of likely hazards. This research estimates the interest of the local society about technological hazards and the conviction that hydrogen vehicles could be as safe as conventional vehicles. Additional critical scenarios related to the hydrogen storage are analyzed.     

Techno-economical evaluation of a hydrogen refuelling station powered by Wind-PV hybrid power system: A case study for İzmir-Çeşme

Hydrogen fuelling station is an infrastructure for the commercialisation of hydrogen energy utilising fuel cells, particularly, in the automotive sector. Hydrogen fuel produced by renewable sources such as the solar and wind energy can be an alternative fuel to depress the use of fuels based on fossil sources in the transport sector for sustainable clean energy strategy in future. By replacing the primary fuel with hydrogen fuel produced using renewable sources in road transport sector, environmental benefits can be achieved. In the present study, techno-economic analysis of hydrogen refuelling station powered by wind-photovoltaics (PV) hybrid power system to be installed in ?zmir-Çe?me, Turkey is performed. This analysis is carried out to a design of hydrogen refuelling station which is refuelling 25 fuel cell electric vehicles on a daily basis using hybrid optimisation model for electric renewable (HOMER) software. In this study, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) surface meteorology and solar energy database were used. Therefore, the average wind speed during the year was assessed to be 5.72 m/s and the annual average solar irradiation was used to be 5.08 kW h/m²/day for the considered site. According to optimisation results obtained for the proposed configuration, the levelised cost of hydrogen production was found to be US $7.526–7.866/kg in different system configurations. These results show that hydrogen refuelling station powered by renewable energy is economically appropriate for the considered site. It is expected that this study is the pre-feasibility study and obtained results encougare the hydrogen refuelling station to be established in Turkey by inventors or public institutions.     

Air quality and environmental impacts of alternative vehicle technologies in Ontario,Canada

This study is focused on the province-wide emissions in Ontario, Canada and urban air pollution in the city of Toronto. The life-cycle (LC) impacts of utilizing alternative fuels for transportation purposes is considered in terms of six major stressors for climate change, acidification and urban air quality. The vehicles considered are plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) and fuel cell plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (FCPHEVs). Modeling of the penetration rates for these types of vehicles has been completed based on the maximum base-load capacity of Ontario's electricity grid to accommodate the generation of hydrogen and charging of vehicles using grid electricity. Results show that the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from adoption of PHEVs or FCVs will exceed 3% of the current emissions from the transportation sector in Ontario while FCPHEVs may achieve almost twice this reduction. All vehicles exhibit similar impacts on the precursors for photochemical smog although the province-wide effects differ significantly.     

Plug-in hybrid fuel cell vehicles market penetration scenarios

The main objective of this research is to analyze the impact of the market share increase of hydrogen based road vehicles in terms of energy consumption and CO₂, on today's Portuguese light-duty fleet. Actual yearly values of energy consumption and emissions were estimated using COPERT software: 167112 TJ of fossil fuel energy, 12213 kton of CO₂ emission and 141 kton of CO, 20 kton of HC, 46 kton of NO_x and 3 kton of PM. These values represent 20–40% of countries total emissions. Additionally to base fleet, three scenarios of introduction of 10–30% fuel cell vehicles including plug-in hybrids configurations were analysed. Considering the scenarios of increasing hydrogen based vehicles penetration, up to 10% life cycle energy consumption reduction can be obtained if hydrogen from centralized natural gas reforming is considered. Full life cycle CO₂ emissions can also be reduced up to 20% in these scenarios, while local pollutants reach up to 85% reductions. For the purpose of estimating road vehicle technologies energy consumption and CO₂ emissions in a full life cycle perspective, fuel cell, conventional full hybrids and hybrid plug-in technologies were considered with diesel, gasoline, hydrogen and biofuel blends. Energy consumption values were estimated in a real road driving cycle and with ADVISOR software. Materials cradle-to-grave life cycle was estimated using GREET database adapted to Europe electric mix. The main conclusions on CO₂ full life cycle analysis is that light-duty vehicles using fuel cell propulsion technology are highly dependent on hydrogen production pathway. The worst scenario for the current Portuguese and European electric mix is hydrogen produced from on-site electrolysis (in the refuelling stations). In this case full life cycle CO₂ is 270 g/km against 190 g/km for conventional Diesel vehicle, for a typical 150,000 km useful life.     

The fuel cell electric vehicles: The highlight review

Transportation sector is the important sector and consumed the most fossil fuel in the world. Since COVID-19 started in 2019, this sector had become the world connector because every country relies on logistics. The transportation sector does not only deal with the human transportation but also relates to logistics. Research in every country has searched for alternative transportation to replace internal combustion engines using fossil fuel, one of the most prominent choices is fuel cells. Fuel cells can use hydrogen as fuel. Hydrogen can be fed to the fuel cells to provide electric power to drive vehicles, no greenhouse gas emission and no direct combustion required. The fuel cells have been developed widely as the 21st century energy-conservation devices for mobile, stationary, and especially vehicles. The fuel cell electric vehicles using hydrogen as fuel were also called hydrogen fuel cell vehicles or hydrogen electric vehicles. The fuel cells were misconceived by several people that they were batteries, but the fuel cells could provide electric power continuously if their fuel was provided continuously. The batteries could provide electric power as their only capacities, when all ions are released, no power could be provided. Because the fuel cell vehicles play important roles for our future transportation, the overall review for these vehicles is significantly interesting. This overall review can provide general and technical information, variety of readers; vehicle users, manufacturers, and scientists, can perceive and understand the fuel cell vehicles within this review. The readers can realize how important the fuel cell technologies are and support research around the world to drive the fuel cell vehicles to be the leading vehicles in our sustainable developing world.     

HYDRIDE4MOBILITY: An EU HORIZON 2020 project on hydrogen powered fuel cell utility vehicles using metal hydrides in hydrogen storage and refuelling systems

The goal of the EU Horizon 2020 RISE project 778307 “Hydrogen fuelled utility vehicles and their support systems utilising metal hydrides” (HYDRIDE4MOBILITY), is in addressing critical issues towards a commercial implementation of hydrogen powered forklifts using metal hydride (MH) based hydrogen storage and PEM fuel cells, together with the systems for their refuelling at industrial customers facilities. For these applications, high specific weight of the metallic hydrides has an added value, as it allows counterbalancing of a vehicle with no extra cost. Improving the rates of H₂ charge/discharge in MH on the materials and system level, simplification of the design and reducing the system cost, together with improvement of the efficiency of system “MH store-FC”, is in the focus of this work as a joint effort of consortium uniting academic teams and industrial partners from two EU and associated countries Member States (Norway, Germany, Croatia), and two partner countries (South Africa and Indonesia).The work within the project is focused on the validation of various efficient and cost-competitive solutions including (i) advanced MH materials for hydrogen storage and compression, (ii) advanced MH containers characterised by improved charge-discharge dynamic performance and ability to be mass produced, (iii) integrated hydrogen storage and compression/refuelling systems which are developed and tested together with PEM fuel cells during the collaborative efforts of the consortium.This article gives an overview of HYDRIDE4MOBILITY project focused on the results generated during its first phase (2017–2019).     

Abating transport GHG emissions by hydrogen fuel cell vehicles: Chances for the developing world

Fuel cell vehicles, as the most promising clean vehicle technology for the future, represent the major chances for the developing world to avoid high-carbon lock-in in the transportation sector. In this paper, by taking China as an example, the unique advantages for China to deploy fuel cell vehicles are reviewed. Subsequently, this paper analyzes the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from 19 fuel cell vehicle utilization pathways by using the life cycle assessment approach. The results show that with the current grid mix in China, hydrogen from water electrolysis has the highest GHG emissions, at 3.10 kgCO₂/km, while by-product hydrogen from the chlor-alkali industry has the lowest level, at 0.08 kgCO₂/km. Regarding hydrogen storage and transportation, a combination of gas-hydrogen road transportation and single compression in the refueling station has the lowest GHG emissions. Regarding vehicle operation, GHG emissions from indirect methanol fuel cell are proved to be lower than those from direct hydrogen fuel cells. It is recommended that although fuel cell vehicles are promising for the developing world in reducing GHG emissions, the vehicle technology and hydrogen production issues should be well addressed to ensure the life-cycle low-carbon performance.     

Fuel cell and battery electric vehicles compared

Several alternative vehicle and fuel options are under consideration to alleviate the triple threats of climate change, urban air pollution and foreign oil dependence caused by motor vehicles. This paper evaluates the primary transportation alternatives and determines which hold the greatest potential for averting societal threats. We developed a dynamic computer simulation model that compares the societal benefits of replacing conventional gasoline cars with vehicles that are partially electrified, including hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids fueled by gasoline, cellulosic ethanol and hydrogen, and all-electric vehicles powered exclusively by batteries or by hydrogen and fuel cells. These simulations compare the year-by-year societal benefits over a 100-year time horizon of each vehicle/fuel combination compared to conventional cars. We conclude that all-electric vehicles will be required in combination with hybrids, plug-in hybrids and biofuels to achieve an 80% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels, while simultaneously cutting dependence on imported oil and eliminating nearly all controllable urban air pollution from the light duty vehicle fleet. Hybrids and plug-ins that continue to use an internal combustion engine will not be adequate by themselves to achieve our societal objectives, even if they are powered with biofuels.     

Optimization and analysis of a hydrogen supply chain in terms of cost,CO2 emissions,and risk: the case of Turkey

The transportation sector, which is largely dependent on oil, is faced with many problems such as the danger of depletion of fossil fuels that are harmful to the environment. Moreover, the situations such as epidemics and war cause excessive fluctuations in oil prices. Therefore, there is a need for new solutions based on alternative energy sources for a sustainable transportation sector. Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEV) are one of the significant alternatives for an efficient, zero emissions and sustainable transportation system. Considering the potential investment in HFCEV technology, the need for a cost effective, green, and low risk Hydrogen Supply Chain (HSC) network infrastructure is inevitable. In this study, the HSC design of the Turkish transportation sector over a 25-year period (2026–2050) is investigated. The problem is modeled using a multi-period mixed integer linear programming (MIP) model. Three objectives are addresses: cost, carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and safety risk. In order to consider the uncertainty in the hydrogen demand, five different scenarios are analyzed using fuzzy concept. There are four main results. First, unit hydrogen cost is found to be very high due to low demand and high capital cost in the initial period (2026–2031). Second, HSC network is established in a decentralized setting in all scenario solutions. The level of decentralization gets stronger over time and with increasing demand. Third, short-distance road transport is generally preferred for hydrogen transport. Fourth, since the aim is to minimize cost, CO₂ emissions, and risk level, a mixed production strategy based on cost-oriented SMR and zero-emissions-oriented Electrolysis (ELE) is observed in all scenarios.     

Reinforcement learning based energy management systems and hydrogen refuelling stations for fuel cell electric vehicles: An overview

This paper examines the current state of the art of hydrogen refuelling stations-based production and storage systems for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEV). Nowadays, the emissions are increasing rapidly due to the usage of fossil fuels and the demand for hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) is emerging to replace the conventional vehicles with FCHEVs. Hence, the availability of HRS and its economic aspects are discussed. In addition, a comprehensive study is presented on the energy storage systems such as batteries, supercapacitors and fuel cells which play a major role in the FCHEVs. An energy management system (EMS) is essential to meet the load requirement with effective utilisation of power sources with various optimizing techniques. A detailed comparative analysis is presented on the merits of Reinforcement learning (RL) for the FCHEVs. The significant challenges are discussed in depth with potential solutions for future work.     

Impact of energy supply infrastructure in life cycle analysis of hydrogen and electric systems applied to the Portuguese transportation sector

Hydrogen and electric vehicle technologies are being considered as possible solutions to mitigate environmental burdens and fossil fuel dependency. Life cycle analysis (LCA) of energy use and emissions has been used with alternative vehicle technologies to assess the Well-to-Wheel (WTW) fuel cycle or the Cradle-to-Grave (CTG) cycle of a vehicle's materials. Fuel infrastructures, however, have thus far been neglected. This study presents an approach to evaluate energy use and CO₂ emissions associated with the construction, maintenance and decommissioning of energy supply infrastructures using the Portuguese transportation system as a case study. Five light-duty vehicle technologies are considered: conventional gasoline and diesel (ICE), pure electric (EV), fuel cell hybrid (FCHEV) and fuel cell plug-in hybrid (FC-PHEV). With regard to hydrogen supply, two pathways are analysed: centralised steam methane reforming (SMR) and on-site electrolysis conversion. Fast, normal and home options are considered for electric chargers. We conclude that energy supply infrastructures for FC vehicles are the most intensive with 0.03–0.53 MJ_eq/MJ emitting 0.7–27.3 g CO_2eq/MJ of final fuel. While fossil fuel infrastructures may be considered negligible (presenting values below 2.5%), alternative technologies are not negligible when their overall LCA contribution is considered. EV and FCHEV using electrolysis report the highest infrastructure impact from emissions with approximately 8.4% and 8.3%, respectively. Overall contributions including uncertainty do not go beyond 12%.