Microwave Dielectric Properties of Ferroelectric BaTiO3 Thin Film

The dielectric properties of c-axis epitaxial BaTiO₃ thin film on LaAlO₃ are investigated at frequencies of 0.5–30 GHz. For the measurements, interdigital capacitors with the Au/Ti electrode configurations of five fingers pairs that are 15 m wide and spaced 2 m apart are prepared by photolithography and lift-off patterning. Finger length varies from 20 to 80 m. The capacitance of epitaxial BaTiO₃ films exhibited no frequency dependence up to 10 GHz with the exception of slightly upward tendency of capacitance in BaTiO₃ film with a finger length of 80 m due to the self resonant frequency at 20 GHz. The Q-factors of the capacitors, defined as Q = 1/CR, are decreased up to 10 GHz with increased frequency. At 10 GHz, the BaTiO₃ film has a tunability [defined as k(V) = [C(0)–C(V)]C(0)] of 1.5% at 15 V, a loss tangent of 0.2 at room temperature. The small tunability can be interpreted as a result of in-plane compressive stress of BaTiO₃ film exhibiting large dielectric anisotropy. For the improvement of tunability and dielectric loss in the interdigital BaTiO₃ capacitor, the tetragonality (c/a) of epitaxial BaTiO₃ film and design of interdigital capacitor should be modified.     

Synthesis, Microstructure and Electrical Properties of Hydrothermally Prepared Ferroelectric BaTiO3 Thin Films

Thin films of polycrystalline, tetragonal BaTiO₃ on oxidized Ti metal substrates were synthesized at 240°C under hydrothermal conditions. Microstructure and electrical properties of the films generated over a four week period of synthesis formed the focus of this study. The films displayed a smooth and shiny surface with a relatively dense structure and no observable cracks. Film thickness reached 0.5 m after two weeks of synthesis and thereafter remained constant. Diameters of the grains on the film surface were in the range of 12 m. It is proposed that initial formation of the BaTiO₃ film occurs by reaction of Ba²⁺ with solubilized titanium oxide on the Ti metal surface followed at later stages by an in-situ growth via reaction of TiO_x with Ba²⁺ diffusing through the BaTiO₃ film. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy indicated that the BaTiO₃ films are tetragonal, and the films exhibited typical ferroelectric hysteresis loops at room temperature. However, no evidence of the dielectric anomaly (Curie transition) between 30 and 200°C was observed. Dielectric constant of the films at 1 kHz at room temperature was between 400–500. Both dielectric constant and tan exhibited low dispersion as a function of frequency at temperatures below 150°C, and the dispersion increased with temperature.     

Copper Compatible Barium Titanate Thin Films for Embedded Passives

Barium titanate thin films have been prepared by chemical solution deposition on 18 m thick, industry standard copper foils in the absence of chemical barrier layers. The final embodiment exhibits randomly oriented BaTiO₃ grains with diameters between 0.1 and 0.3 m, and an equiaxed morphology. The average film thickness is 0.6 m and the microstructure is free from secondary or interfacial phases. The BaTiO₃ films are sintered in a high temperature reductive atmosphere such that copper oxidation is avoided. Subsequent lower-temperature, higher oxygen pressure anneals are used to minimize oxygen point defects. Permittivities of 2500 are observed at zero bias and room temperature, with permittivities greater than 3000 at the coercive field. Loss tangents under 1.5% are demonstrated at high fields. The BaTiO₃ phase exhibits pronounced ferroelectric switching and coercive field values near 10 kV/cm. Temperature dependent measurements indicate a ferroelectric transition near 100C with very diffuse character. Combining the approaches of the multilayer capacitor industry with traditional solution processed thin films has allowed pure barium titanate to be integrated with copper. The high sintering temperature—as compared to typical film processing—provides for large grained films and properties consistent with well-prepared ceramics. Integrating BaTiO₃ films on copper foil represents an important step towards high capacitance density embedded passive components and elimination of economic constraints imparted by traditional noble metallization.     

Modern aspects of far-infrared gas lasers

Contents A short survey is presented on the recent development of optically pumped pulsed far-infrared (FIR) or THz gas lasers. This includes the new distributed-feedback (DFB) and helical-feedback (HFB) FIR gas lasers as well as the subnanosecond-single-pulse FIR gas lasers pumped by 50 ns 10 m pulses of hybrid CO₂ lasers truncated within ca. 10 ps at their maximum by a novel ultrafast laser-triggered plasma shutter. These lasers show interesting phenomena such as standard and swept-gain superradiance as well as anticorrelated oscillations of the far-infrared emission and the 10 m pump radiation in the Raman regime. In this context it was discovered that FIR laser gases, e.g., CH₃F, NH₃, D₂O, CH₃CN, can be used successfully as spectral filters in Optical-Free-Induction-Decay 10 m CO₂ laser systems instead of the standard hot CO₂ gas. Finally, the single ultrashort FIR pulses are presently applied to FIR or THz quantumwell detectors and to high-T _c superconductors to gain further information on their exciting and complicated features.

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Aktuelle Aspekte der Ferninfrarot (THz) Gaslaser

Übersicht Aktuelle Probleme und Resultate der Forschung über optisch-gepumpte gepulste Ferninfrarot (FIR)- resp. THz-Gaslaser werden erläutert. Diese betreffen sowohl die neuartigen Distributed Feedback (DFB) und Helical Feedback (HFB) FIR Gaslaser, als auch FIR Gaslaser, die gepumpt werden mit den 50 ns 10 m Pulsen von Hybriden CO₂ Lasern, welche mit neu entwickelten, Lasergesteuerten Plasmaschaltern innerhalb ca. 10 ps im Maximum abgeschnitten werden. Damit erzielt man Subnanosekunden-FIR Einzelpulse. Diese Laser zeigen interessante Phänomene, wie normale und verstärkte Superstrahlung oder antikorrelierte Fluktuationen der FIR Strahlung und 10 m Pumpstrahlung im Raman-Emissionsstadium. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde festgestellt, daß FIR Laser-Gase, z. B. CH₃F, NH₃, D₂O, CH₃CN, erfolgreich als Spektralfilter in Optical-Free-Induction-Decay 10 m CO₂ Lasersystemen das übliche heiße CO₂ Gas ersetzen können. Die einzelnen ultrakurzen FIR-Pulse werden zur Zeit zum Test neuer FIR resp. THz Quantum-Well-Detektoren und zur Untersuchung ihrer Einwirkung auf Hoch-T _c -Supraleiter verwendet.

     

Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors with Thin (Ba,Sr)TiO3 Layers by MOCVD

Barium strontium titanate ((Ba,Sr)TiO₃; BST) thin films were prepared on platinum-coated MgO substrates at 650°C by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). Perovskite single phased BST thin films were obtained. Dielectric constant at 1 kHz–100 mV was 1000. Multilayer ceramic capacitor with twelve BST dielectric layers of 0.26 m thick was formed on the MgO substrate. Capacitance and dissipation factor (tan) at 1 kHz–100 mV were 32 nF and 1.5% respectively. Capacitance per unit volume of 33 F/mm³ provided 10 to 20 times larger volumetric efficiency than the conventional multilayer ceramic capacitors. Temperature coefficient of capacitance was –4000 ppm/°C. The leakage current at 1 V was 2.3×10^-9 A that yielded an acceptable CR product of 12.8 M-F. MOCVD was proposed as one of the promising manufacturing technologies for multilayer ceramic capacitors of high performance with sub-micron thick dielectric layers.     

Monolayer-Mediated Patterning of Integrated Electroceramics

Integrated electroceramic thin-film devices on semiconducting or insulating substrate materials offer a wide variety of attractive attributes, including high capacitance density, nonvolatile memory, sensor/actuator ability, and other unique electrical, electromechanical, magnetic and optical functions. Thus the ability to pattern such electroceramic thin films is a critical technology for future device realization. Patterned oxide thin-film devices are typically formed by uniform film deposition followed by somewhat complicated post-deposition ion-beam or chemical etching in a controlled environment i.e., a subtractive method. We review here an upset technology, a different way of patterning, by an additive approach, which allows for the selective deposition of electroceramic thin layers without such post-deposition etching. In this method, substrate surfaces are selectively functionalized with hydrophobic self-assembled monolayers to modify the adhesion of subsequently deposited solution-derived electroceramics. The selective functionalization is achieved through microcontact printing (-CP) of self-assembled monolayers of the chemical octadecyltrichlorosilane on substrates of current technical interest. Subsequent sol-gel deposition of ceramic oxides on these functionalized substrates, followed by lift-off from the monolayer, yields high quality, patterned oxide thin layers only on the unfunctionalized regions. A variety of micron-scale dielectric oxide devices have been fabricated by this method, with lateral resolution as fine as 0.5 m. In this paper, we review the monolayer patterning and electrical behavior of several patterned electroceramic thin films, including Pb(Zr,Ti)O₃ [PZT], LiNbO₃, and Ta₂O₅. A multilevel example is also given which combines selective MOCVD deposition of metal electrodes and sol-gel patterned PZT for Pt//PZT//Pt//Si(100) ferroelectric memory cells.     

Characterization of Crystalline Carbon Nitride Films Deposited on Si and Si3N4/Si Substrate by RF Magnetron Sputtering System with DC Bias

Crystalline carbon nitride films were deposited on Si and Si₃N₄/Si substrate by reactive RF magnetron sputtering system with chamber heating and DC bias. The deposited films showed -C₃N₄, -C₃N₄ and lonsdaleite phase by XRD, XPS and FTIR. The crystalline morphology was found to gave a hexagonal structure, which has theoretical unit cell of carbon nitride observed in SEM photographs. When nitrogen gas ratio is 70%, RF power is 300 W and DC bias is –80 V, the growth rate of carbon nitride film on Si₃N₄ substrate is 2.2 m/hr, which is a relatively high growth rate compared with those in previously reported papers. The deposited films have thermally stable properties in the range of 650_C to 1,400_C.     

Recent Developments on MOCVD of Ferroelectric Thin Films

Ferroelectric Pb(Zr, Ti)O₃ thin films were fabricated by liquid delivery MOCVD using Pb(DPM)₂, Ti(OiPr)₂(DPM)₂ and Zr(DIBM)₄. The deposition rate of 12.3 nm/min was attained on 6-inch Pt/Ti/SiO₂/Si wafers at 550C. The average and the deviation of twofold remanent polarization were 45.5 C/cm² and ± 6.4%, respectively, over the 6-inch wafer. Step coverage was improved from 44% to 90% by decreasing deposition temperature from 550 to 400C although the deposition rate decreased by 60%. TiO₂ nanoparticles diffused to the surface of platinum bottom electrodes were effective as a seed to obtain 111 preferential oriented PZT thin films at the deposition temperature of 550C. Iridium oxide bottom electrodes were reduced to metal ones by CO and/or H₂ gases generated by decomposition of precursors. Oxide materials seem to be not the best as bottom electrodes in liquid delivery MOCVD. A cocktail source consisted of Pb(METHD)₂, Ti(MPD)(METHD)₂ and Zr(METHD)₄ was also examined. PbPt_x alloy phase existed in PZT films deposited at 500C was disappeared by post-annealing at 600C and the annealed film showed hysteresis properties with the 2P_r of 56 C/cm² and the 2E_c of 181 kV/cm.     

Microwave Studies on Strontium Ferrite Based Absorbers

Single layer microwave absorbers based on strontium ferrite-epoxy composites have been fabricated and their reflection loss characteristics studied in the X-band (8–12.4 GHz) of microwave frequencies. Permittivity (_r – j_r) and permeability (_r – j_r) of Co and Ti added strontium ferrite SrCo _x Ti _x Fe_{12 – 2x} O₁₉ (x = 0.1 to 0.9 in steps of 0.2), have been measured. Thickness of the absorber is an important criterion influencing the absorption characteristics. Composites of 3 mm thickness are found to absorb over a reasonable range of X-band frequencies. A minimum reflection loss of –36.5 dB is observed for the composite with x = 0.3.     

Polarization Switching in (100)/(001) Oriented Epitaxial Pb(Zr, Ti)O3 Thin Films

Thin films made of (100)/(001)-oriented Pb(Zr, Ti)O₃ (PZT) were deposited by liquid-delivery metal-organic chemical vapor deposition on Ir/MgAl₂O₄/SiO₂/Si(100) substrates. For comparison, PZT thin films were also deposited on Ir/MgO(100) substrates. The X-ray scan spectra for the (202) reflections revealed that the PZT films have four-fold symmetry. It indicates that the PZT films were epitaxially grown as a cube-on-cube structure on both substrates. The switchable polarization (Q_sw) of the PZT capacitors on the silicon substrate was only 23 C/cm² at 1.8 V; however, Q_sw of PZT capacitors on MgO was 99 C/cm². In the case of PZT films deposited on silicon, the volume fraction of (001)-oriented domains (which contribute to polarization switching) was 15.1% (calculated from an XRD pattern). This result is due to the lower Q_sw of PZT capacitors on silicon. By piezoresponse-force microscopy, switchable and unswitchable domains could be identified by imaging color contrast, namely, (001) and (100) domains, respectively. Consequently, domain distribution of the PZT film on a silicon substrate indicates that the (001) domain exists in the (100) domain matrix.     

Hydrothermal Preparation and Characterization of Ultra-Fine BaTiO3 Powders from Amorphous Peroxo-Hydroxide Precursor

Ultra-fine BaTiO₃ powders were hydrothermally prepared by using Ba Ti-peroxo-hydroxide precursor. Amorphous Ba Ti-peroxo-hydroxide precursor were prepared by coprecipitation of Ba(NO₃)₂ and TiCl₄ aqueous solution adding in NH₄OH aqueous solution. The phase-pure BaTiO₃ powders with a cubic perovskite structure were synthesized at temperature as low as 110_C and in the pH range of 10–12. This processing method provides a simple low temperature route for producing BaTiO₃ nanoparticles. Under a TEM image and a SAD pattern analysis, it is evident that BaTiO₃ powders had spherical shape and single crystal nature. The BaTiO₃ ceramic sintered at 1200_C for 1 h had 97% of theoretical density and a relatively high dielectric constant ( _r = 3500).     

Das magnetische Feld des gleichstromdurchflossenen Leiters von elliptischem Querschnitt

Übersicht Es wird das magnetfeld eines elliptischen Stromleiters bestimmt. Die Permeabiliät des Leiters ₁ und des umgebenden Raumes ₂ sind beliebig. Zur Berechnung wird die Methode der Trennung der Veränderlichen angewendet.

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Contents The magnetic Field of the wire of eliptical cross section has been determined. The calculations have been carried out for any permeability values of the wire and its environment. The Fourier method of separation of variables has been applied.

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Bezeichnungen a, b Halbachsen der Ellipse - c Ellipsenexzentrizität - ₁ Permeabilität des Leiters - ₂ Permeabilität des Raumes - , ,z elliptische Koordinaten - a ,a ,a _z Einheitsvektoren - A Vektorpotential - B _x ,B _y Induktionskomponenten im kartesischen Koordinatensystem - B ,B Induktionskomponenten im elliptischen Koordinatensystem - C, D Konstanten - J Stromdichte - I Leiterstrom - Index I Innengebiet des Leiters - Index II Außengebiet des Leiters     

Fabrication of PZT Composite Thick Films for High Frequency Membrane Resonators

High frequency, thickness mode resonators were fabricated using a 7 m PZT thick film which was produced using a modified composite ceramic sol-gel process. Initial studies dealt with the integration of the PZT thick film onto the substrate. Two different diffusion barrier layers were tested, titanium oxide and zirconium oxide, in conjunction with the use of 2 types of silicon substrate (differing in the etch stop layer employed, either silicon nitride or silicon oxide). Zirconium oxide gave good results in conjunction with silicon oxide. Using these conditions, devices were produced and the acoustic properties measured for different electrode sizes ranging from 45*45 to 250*250 m². The best electrode size, which maximised the acoustic response and minimised the insertion loss, was found to have an area of 110*110 m². This device showed a resonant frequency of about 200 MHz, an effective electro-mechanical coupling coefficient of 0.29 and a Q factor of 22.     

Zum Einfluß von Zahn- und Jochsättigung auf die Harmonischen des Luftspaltfeldes

Übersicht Das Spektrum des Luftspaltfelds ändert sich unter dem Einfluß der Sättigung der Eisenbereiche. Anhand numerischer Feldberechnungen wird gezeigt, daß zwischen der Sättigung im Zahn- und Jochbereich der Maschine prinzipielle Unterschiede bestehen und welchen Einfluß sie auf das Luftspaltfeld haben. Im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchungen stehen niederpolige Luftspaltfelder, der Einfluß der Sättigung auf nutharmonische Felder wird nur schlaglichtartig behandelt. Durch Verwendung bezogener Größen wird eine Übertragbarkeit der numerisch gewonnenen Ergebnisse angestrebt. Diese werden darüber hinaus mit den Ergebnissen eines verbreiteten analytischen Verfahrens verglichen.

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On the influence of teeth and yoke saturation on the space-harmonics

Contents The spectrum of the magnetic field in the air gap of induction motors is influenced by the level of saturation of the magnetic circuit. This report deals with the effects of saturation, which are significantly different in case of yoke respectively teeth saturation. The research is done by means of numerical field calculations of a simplified model. The results are compared with a commonly used analytical approach. Beside of the reduction of the fundamental field the effects of saturation on the third and fifth space-harmonics are found to be most important. The effect on the slot harmonics is proved to be negligible for the model presented.

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Formelzeichen a Breitenfaktor für Feldwelle mit der Polpaarzahl - b(x) resultierende Luftspaltinduktion - B _J Maximalwert der Induktion im Joch - b Induktionsdrehwelle der Polpaarzahl - B Scheitelwert der Induktionsdrehwelle der Polpaarzahl - B _L,m Mittelwert der Induktion im Luftspalt - B _max Maximalwert der Induktion im Luftspalt - b _p Induktionsdrehwelle, Grundfeld - B _p Grundfeldinduktion, Scheitelwert - b _s Nutöffnung - b _z Zahnbreite - Z _Z Induktion im zahnschaft, Scheitelwert - D _a Ständeraußendurchmesser - D _i Ständerinnendurchmesser (Bohrung) - H _r Radialkomponente der magnetischen Feldstärke, Scheitelwert - H _t Tangentialkomponente der magnetischen Feldstärke, Scheitelwert - k Sättigungsgrad, nur Sättigung im Zahnbereich - k _c Carterscher Faktor - k _c1 ,k _c2 Carterscher Faktor, ständer/läuferseitig - k _js Sättigungsgrad, nur Sättigung im Jochbereich - k _S Sättigungsgrad - m ₁ Strangzahl - N Nutzahl, Ständer - p Anzahl der Polpaare - r Radius - R _J Radius, halbe Ständerjochhöhe - V magnetische Spannung, Scheitelwert - v(x) resultierende Felderregung - V _Eisen magnetischer Spannungsabfall im Eisenbereich, Scheitelwert - V _Joch magnetischer Spannungsabfall im Jochbereich, Scheitelwert - V _Luft magnetischer Spannungsabfall im Luftspalt, Scheitelwert - V _p Scheitelwert der Grundfelderregerwelle - v _p (x) Drehwelle der Grundfelderregung - V _Zahn magnetischer Spannungsabfall im Zahnbereich, Scheitelwert - w mittlere Spulenweite - x Umfangswinkel - Abplattungsfaktor - geometrischer Luftspalt - Ordnungszahl einer Leitwertwelle durch Nutung oder Sättigung - (x) resultierender magnetischer Leitwert, Sättigung unberücksichtigt - _O konstanter Anteil des magnetischen Leitwerts, Sättigung unberücksichtigt - Scheitelwert einer Leitwertdrehwelle der Ordnungszahl - _N Grundwelle des magnetischen Leitwerts durch Nutung, Scheitelwert - _S(X) resultierender magnetischer Leitwert, Sättigung berücksichtigt - _S,O konstanter Anteil des magnetischen Leitwerts, Sättigung berücksichtigt - _S,2p Grundwelle des magnetischen Leitwerts durch Sättigung, Scheitelwert - _S, magnetische Leitwertdrehwelle durch Sättigung, Scheitelwert - Polpaarzahl - _r,Fe relative Permeabilität im Eisenbereich - _Nut elektrische Durchflutung je Nut, Scheitelwert - _p Durchflutungsgrundwelle, Scheitelwert - _rel relative elektrische Durchflutung - _N Nutteilung, Ständer - resultierender Wicklungsfaktor, Polpaarzahl - _p resultierender Grundfeldwicklungsfaktor - _S Sehnungsfaktor, Polpaarzahl - _S,p Sehnungsfaktor des Grundfelds - _Z, Zonenwicklungsfaktor, Polpaarzahl - _Z,p Zonenwicklungsfaktor des Grundfelds     

Nanocrystalline Alkaline Earth Titanates and Their Conductivity Characteristics Under Changing Oxygen Ambients

This work presents the first systematic study of conductivity characteristics of alkaline earth titanates in the form of polycrystalline and heteroepitaxial thin films as well as nanocrystalline ceramics as a function of temperature (between 600_C and 1000_C) and continuously adjustable oxygen partial pressures ranging from 10^{– 20} bar to 1 bar. Compared to the well-known log,-log, pO₂ profiles of single crystals, the conductivity behavior of CSD-prepared, polycrystalline SrTiO₃ thin films with a feature size of about 50 nm differs radically. The most prominent characteristics are a sharp drop under reducing conditions followed by a broad plateau region. Tailored investigations on heteroepitaxial as well as polycrystalline thin films grown by PLD and especially by studies on nanocrystalline BaTiO₃ ceramics with a mean grain size of 100 nm allowed an unambiguous assignment of the described effects to the nanocrystalline morphology of the samples.     

Watt-hour efficiency of system loop inductor-ferromagnetic plate

Contents A numerical method of calculation of Watt-hour efficiency of a system loop inductor-ferromagnetic plate is presented. The integral equation approach is applied. The presented method permits to compute the eddy-current losses in the ferromagnetic plate without integrating the Poynting vector. As an example the watt-hour efficiency as a function of angular frequency is calculated.

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Elektrischer Wirkungsgrad im System Induktionsschleife — Ferromagnetische Platte

Übersicht In der Arbeit wird eine numerische Berechnungs-methode des elektrischen Wirkungsgrades in dem System Induktionsschleife—ferromagnetische Platte dargestellt.Es wird die Methode der Integralgleichungen angewendet. Die Methode gestattet die Berechnung der Wirbelstromverluste in einer ferromagnetischen Platte ohne den Poynting-Vector zu integrieren. Ein Berechnungsbeispiel zeigt den elektrischen Wirkungsgrad als Funktion der Kreisfrequenz.

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List of principal symbols A vector potential - I total current in the loop-inductor - J current density - k ² j _{0 f f} - P active power loss - R _{l, m} mutual resistance of conductorsl andm - Z _{l, m} mutual impedances of conductorsl andm - _c conductivity of the conductors - _f conductivity of the ferromagnetic plate - ₀ Kronecker delta - _f relative permeability of the ferromagnetic plate - ₀ permeability of the vacuum - angular frequency - watt-hour efficiency     

Pulsed Laser Deposition of Zr1-xCexO2 and Ce1-xLaxO2-x/2 for Buffer Layers and Insulating Barrier in Oxide Heterostructures

We have studied the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) of Zr_1-xCexO₂ and Ce_1-xLa_xO₂-x/2 initially to grow buffer layers for perovskite films deposited on Si, LaAlO₃, SrTiO₃ and MgO and then to produce tunneling barriers for cuprate or manganite heterostructures. On (1 0 0) Si, the deposition of Zr_1-xCexO₂ (x = 0.12) produces a smooth epitaxial layer (R _RMS = 0.25/1m²), which allows the further deposition of high quality YBa₂Cu₃O₇ (Tc 88 K) and La_0.7Sr_0.3MnO₃ films. On the other hand, the use of Ce_1-xLa_xO_2-x/2 (0 x 0.4) makes it possible to match the YBa₂Cu₃O₇ and La_0.7Sr_0.3MnO₃ layers to various substrates. The buffer layers are epitaxially grown with a 45° rotation of the in-plane axes with respect to those of the substrate, and the smoothness is high (R _RMS = 0.25/1m²). In the case of an ultra-thin barrier (2.5 nm) of Ce_1-xLa_xO_2-x/2 sandwiched in a La_0.7Sr_0.3MnO₃, the out-of-plane mismatch of 2 induces distortions at the interface steps, which propagate into the topmost La_0.7Sr_0.3MnO₃ layer. This is in contrast to the case of SrTiO₃ barriers where an ideal crystal continuity in the growth direction is observed.     

Accuracy of 3D MR microscopy for trabecular bone assessment: a comparative study on calcaneus samples using 3D synchrotron radiation microtomography

Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging is attractive for a noninvasive and radiation-free assessment of in vivo trabecular bone architecture. However the quantitative evaluation of architectural parameters could be biased by the limited sensitivity of MR. The aim of this study was to determine the accuracy of trabecular bone architectural parameters obtained from 3D high-resolution MR images, by comparison to reference images obtained by high-resolution X-ray microtomography using synchrotron radiation, from 29 samples of human calcaneus. MR images were obtained with a 66 m×66 m×66 m voxel size, using a 8.5 T MR microscope. Microtomography images were acquired with a 10 m×10 m×10 m voxel size, from the same samples. 3D architectural parameters characterizing the morphometry, topology, anisotropy, and orientation were computed from both modalities and carefully compared. To avoid errors, an identical region of interest was selected in the two corresponding images, and the same algorithms were run at identical spatial resolution. Our results establish that network connectivity, orientation and anisotropy are reliable from the MR data. The bone volume fraction, and morphometric parameters measured from the MR data, were found to be biased with respect to their values from the microtomography data, although there was a significant correlation between the two modalities.An erratum to this article can be found at     

FGTO — A fine structured GTO-thyristor with improved switching characteristics

Contents A fine structured GTO thyristor, abbreviated FGTO, has been developed to improve the switching characteristics. The new device has a cathode finger width of only 20 m and can be turned off without a negative gate bias at an anode current level of more than 200 A/cm². The turn-off time can be shortened down tot _off 500 ns by increasing the negative gate current. A snubber circuit is not necessary to turn off the FGTO's. The maximum rate of rise of anode voltage du/dl reaches more than 10 kV/s. Analytical models are developed to describe the turn-off transients of the FGTO's. Good agreement between the theoretical and experimental results could be achieved.

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FGTO — Ein feinstrukturierter GTO-Thyristor mit verbessertem Schaltverhalten

Übersicht Zur Verbesserung des Schaltverhaltens ist ein feinstrukturierter GTO-Thyristor, abgekürzt FGTO, entwickelt worden. Dieses neue Bauelement hat eine Kathoden-streifenbreite von nur 20 m und kann ohne negative Gatevorspannung bei einer Anodenstromdichte von mehr als 200 A/cm² abgeschaltet werden. Die Abschaltzeit läßt sich durch Erhöhung des negativen Gatestroms bis zut _off 500 ns verkürzen. Beim Abschalten von FGTOs ist keine RC-Beschaltung erforderlich. Der maximale du/dl-Wert erreicht mehr als 10 kV/s. Zur Beschreibung des Abschalt-verhaltens von FGTOs werden analytische Modelle entwickelt, die eine gute Übereinstimmung mit den Meßergebnissen liefern.

     

Ermittlung der Steifigkeitsmatrizen von einfachen permanent magnetischen Lagern für Rotoren

Übersicht In diesem Aufsatz wird ein numerisches Berechnungsverfahren vorgestellt, das Kräfte, Momente und Steifigkeiten von Permanentmagneten in allen sechs Freiheitsgraden zu ermitteln erlaubt. Am Beispiel zweier ringförmiger Magnete (Rotor- und Statormagnet) mit beliebigen liebigen Rechteckquerschnitt werden diese Kräfte und Steifigkeitszahlen berechnet. Sie werden in dimensionslosen Diagrammen dokumentiert. Mit Hilfe der Ähnlichkeitsregeln können sie auf die jeweiligen Ringgeometrien und Magnetisierungen umskaliert werden. Der Einfachheit halber wurde mit der relativen Permeabilität _r =1 gerechnet. Das trifft aber gerade auf Werkstoffe wie Samarium-Cobalt ( _r =1,02) oder Neodymium Eisen Bor ( _r =1,07) recht genau zu.

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Determination of the stiffness matrix of simple permanent magnetic bearings for rotors

Contents A numerical method for the calculation of the forces and stiffness of permanent magnetic bearings is presented. These stiffnesses are determined for the six degrees of freedom of the relative motion between journal and housing. As an example two circular magnets with rectangular cross-section (rotor and stator magnet) are analysed. The results are presented in dimensionsless diagrams. By means of similarity rules they may be scaled up for any geometry and magnetization. For the sake of simplicity the relative permeability was assumed to be _r =1. This assumption holds for the rare-earth-materials used for high energy density permanent magnets.