Modeling of microstructure and residual stress in cast iron calender rolls

A comprehensive mathematical model based on the commercial finite-element (FE) code ABAQUS has been developed to predict the evolution of temperature, microstructure, and residual stresses in cast iron castings. The thermal component of the model, applied in stage one of the analysis, is capable of simulating the formation of microstructure over a broad range of cooling conditions, including the formation of columnar white iron as well as equiaxed gray iron. To test the model, it has been evaluated against thermocouple and microstructural data collected from a reduced-scale calender roll test casting. The model has been demonstrated to be able to predict the transition from columnar white iron to equiaxed gray iron which occurs approximately 20 mm below the outside surface of the roll test casting. In addition, the model is shown to be able to satisfactorily reproduce the evolution of temperature recorded from thermocouples embedded at various locations in the test casting. An elastic-plastic stress analysis, applied in the second stage of the analysis, was performed using the temperature history and the volume fraction of white and gray iron obtained with the thermal/microstructural model. The results were verified against residual stress measurements made at various locations along the outer-diameter (OD) surface of the roll. The elastic-plastic model accounts for the temperature-dependent plastic behavior of white and gray iron and the thermal dilatational behavior of white and gray iron, including volumetric expansion due to austenite decomposition and dilatational anisotropy in columnar white iron. The results of the mathematical analysis demonstrate that the residual stress distribution in full-scale calender thermorolls cannot be deduced simply from knowledge of the microstructural distribution and basic dilatometric considerations, as is currently the practice in industry.     

Prediction of Columnar to Equiaxed Transition during Diffusion-Controlled Dendritic Alloy Solidification

A model is presented to predict the columnar to equiaxed transition (CET) in alloy castings. The model is based on a multiphase approach and accounts for heat and solute diffusion, as well as for grain nucleation, growth, and morphology. The model equations are applicable to both columnar and equiaxed dendritic solidification, thus offering an efficient single-domain formulation. A fixed grid, fully implicit finite-difference procedure is employed in the numerical solution, and a novel front tracking technique is incorporated that is also implicit in nature and readily applies to multidimensional situations. Calculations are performed for one-dimensional (1-D) and two-dimensional (2-D) castings of Al-Cu and Sn-Pb alloys. The calculated CET positions are compared with previous measurements in a (1-D) ingot cast under well-controlled conditions, and good agreement is found. The effects of various casting parameters on the CET are numerically explored.     

Heat Transfer and Its Effect on Solidification in Combined Mould

SymbolList cp,cps,cpl———Specificheat,specificheatofsolidsteel andmoltensteel,(J·kg-1·K-1);C2———EmpiricalcoefficientoflowReynoldsκεturbu lencemodel;Dl———Darcyconstant;fl,fs———Fractionofmoltensteelandsolidsteel;f2———Empiricalcoefficientre     

Mathematical modeling of microstructural development in hypoeutectic cast iron

A mathematical heat-transfer/microstructural model has been developed to predict the evolution of proeutectic austenite, white iron eutectic, and gray iron eutectic during solidification of hypoeutectic cast iron, based on the commercial finite-element code ABAQUS. Specialized routines which employ relationships describing nucleation and growth of equiaxed primary austenite, gray iron eutectic, and white iron eutectic have been formulated and incorporated into ABAQUS through user-specified subroutines. The relationships used in the model to describe microstructural evolution have been adapted from relationships describing equiaxed growth in the literature. The model has been validated/fine tuned against temperature data collected from a QuiK-Cup sample, which contained a thermocouple embedded approximately in the center of the casting. The phase distribution predicted with the model has been compared to the measured phase distribution inferred from the variation in hardness within the QuiK-Cup sample and from image analysis of photomicrographs of the polished and etched microstructure. Overall, the model results were found to agree well with the measured distribution of the microstructure.     

双辊连铸不锈钢薄带凝固组织特点

 通过金相观察分析了同径双辊薄带连铸机上生产的奥氏体不锈钢薄带的凝固组织,结果表明：铸带凝固组织包括2个柱状晶区和1个等轴晶区,其等轴晶呈近球形或蔷薇形。与传统连铸板坯相比,其柱状晶区一次及二次枝晶的间距较小,等轴晶粒内部为非枝晶结构,其尺寸大约是连铸坯等轴晶的1/10,凝固组织更致密。     

37Mn5连铸圆坯中心等轴晶率预测

为控制油井管用连铸圆坯的质量,基于薄片移动法建立了连铸圆坯凝固传热数学模型,并应用Procast软件的CA—FE模块对37Mn5钢Ф150mm圆坯凝固组织进行了模拟。中心等轴晶率模拟结果与工业试验检测结果相一致,据此,建立了柱状晶-等轴晶转变判据。基于此判据的中心等轴晶率预测结果表明,降低过热度、提高拉速和降低二冷零段...     

基于元胞自动机有限元法对方坯凝固组织的数值模拟

 基于元胞自动机有限单元法(CAFE)对国内某钢厂220mm×220mm方坯的三维显微凝固组织进行模拟,分析了CAFE法模拟凝固过程显微组织的物理本质,对形核密度、枝晶尖端生长动力学、枝晶生长的择优取向以及FE与CA耦合的实现分别进行了探讨。用该方法对方坯的三维显微组织进行模拟,并对结晶器出口处方坯的角部温度、中心表面温度及坯壳厚度进行了计算。模拟结果表明：当拉速为0. 85m/min,浇铸温度为1535℃,浇钢过热度为30℃时,结晶器出口处方坯角部温度在850~950℃之间,中心表面温度在1050~1170℃之间,坯壳厚度在15mm左右,铸坯柱状晶发达,等轴晶比率较小。模拟的铸坯组织的等轴晶比例与低倍试验结果吻合较好,可以很好地预测方坯实际凝固组织。     

低温度梯度结晶器的传热分析及工业应用试验

 结晶器内钢液凝固前沿温度梯度的降低可以阻碍柱状晶的生长、促进柱状晶向等轴晶的转变和提高等轴晶率,从而有利于铸坯组织的均质化。基于上述原理和结晶器传热计算,设计和制造了可用于降低钢液凝固前沿温度梯度的带隔热镀层的新型结晶器,并在方坯连铸机上进行了工业试验,分析了其对方坯凝固组织的影响。结果表明,低温度梯度结晶器可满足连铸生产要求;与传统结晶器相比,低温度梯度结晶器出口铸坯表面温度提高了108℃,相近拉速下该结晶器的平均热流密度相对更低,表明其减缓了钢液在凝固初期的传热,从而降低了凝固前沿的温度梯度;通过与低过热度、电磁搅拌技术相结合,低温度梯度结晶器生产的铸坯等轴晶率提高了8%～13%,中心偏析和缩孔严重程度明显降低。     

Influence of mechanical factors on solidification structure of thin strips of Fe–6.5wt-%Si alloy by twin roll casting process

Strips (1.6?mm thick) of Fe–6.5wt-%Si alloy were prepared by twin roll casting. The microstructure was found to be mainly columnar and equiaxed grains. The plastic deformation of the strip is inhomogeneous in the thickness direction. The most serious deformation is located at a certain depth from the strip surface. The influence of mechanical factors on the solidification structure of the strip is discussed. As the two solidifying shells contact with each other at the end of solidification, the columnar growth fronts break into fragments, which finally grow into equiaxed grains. At the hot rolling stage, the inhomogeneous deformation of the strip is attributed to the fact that the ductility of the alloy is sensitive to temperature. There is a large temperature gradient in the thickness direction, which can be up to 510°C?mm^??1.     

结晶器内嵌套对连铸方坯凝固组织的影响

通过方坯结晶器上端内嵌石墨套改变结晶器内凝固坯壳层界面前沿的温度梯度，研究了给定的浇注温度下嵌石墨套对连铸坯凝固组织变化的影响。嵌石墨套结晶器显著改变其凝固壳前端钢液的温度分布，有效地抑制铸坯柱状晶的生长，扩大等轴晶区，减轻凝固偏析。     

圆坯连铸过程中坯壳生长规律

采用ANSYS软件建立了圆坯连铸过程的二维凝固传热模型,通过射钉实验以及表面温度的测定对模型进行了实验验证.结果表明模型能较准确地得到任意位置处铸坯坯壳厚度以及预测凝固终点位置.在传热模型的基础上结合铸坯低倍观察着重分析了圆坯坯壳生长规律.发现圆坯凝固过程中柱状晶区坯壳的厚度与凝固时间的平方根呈线性关系,符合平方根定律,并对平方根定律进行了修正,修正项与过热度和凝固速率有关;铸坯中心等轴区坯壳厚度与凝固时间平方根为非线性关系,凝固坯壳的生长不再符合平方根定律;间接证明了圆坯柱状晶生长是单方向传热,等轴晶生长时传热方向不唯一.      

On the columnar to equiaxed transition in small ingots

The columnar to equiaxed transition (CET) in small ingots of, aluminum alloys was found to occur more easily for alloys with a larger value of the constitutional supercooling parameter (−mC _o (1-k)/k). The CET was found to be completely suppressed by increases in the mold temperature by preheating before casting. These results are discussed in terms of the model proposed by Burden and Hunt that the CET occurs by the effect of the thermal gradient, arising from the slow, solidification of equiaxed dendrites, which increases the undercooling of the columnar dendrites. The application of the model due to Burden and Hunt is shown to require, the use of the ‘big bang’ model for equiaxed nucleation on pouring. A higher density of the nuclei, that grow into equiaxed grains, formed by pouring with lower superheat and into a cold mold, gives a higher thermal gradient immediately in front of the growing columnar grains. Other evidence in favor of the model is briefly discussed.     

On the formation of the central equiaxed zone in ingots

A quenching technique was applied to study the formation of the central equiaxed zone in ingots. Two alloy systems were studied, lead with 2 pct Sb and aluminum with 2 pct Cu. It was found that the central zone can be regarded as composed of two zones, one formed from the bottom by sedimentation and the other formed by the adhesion and further growth of crystals at the vertical solidification front. The columnar-to-equiaxed transition at the vertical solidification front is caused by the development of individual equiaxed grains and not by the remaining melt becoming more and more mushy. It is suggested that the branched columnar zone often observed in commercial ingots is identical to the equiaxed zone formed at the vertical solidification front.     

Simulation of Solidification Microstructure and Columnar to Equiaxed Transition in Free‐cutting Steel 9SMn28 based on a CAFE Method

The solidification microstructure in 9SMn28 free‐cutting steel is simulated by the finite element – cellular automaton (CAFE) method based on the calculation of convection in a casting. The simulation results are consistent with experimental findings; the simulated crystallisation process conforms to the actual situation. The solidification of 9SMn28 alloy is a volume solidification mode under slow cooling condition. The columnar‐to‐equiaxed transition (CET) is also studied in the CAFE model. The mechanism of the CET in the CAFE model is thermal interaction. The CET is not abrupt but occurs gradually, the long columnar grains are first blocked by elongated grains. The grains become more equiaxed as the thermal gradient is decreased with the development of solidification.     

国内外2205双相钢连铸坯凝固组织及碳偏析分析

以国内外两家先进不锈钢生产企业的2205双相不锈钢连铸方坯为研究对象,对比分析了其相应的凝固组织特征和宏观碳偏析分布。研究发现,国外2205连铸坯凝固组织柱状晶较为发达,柱状晶比例为76%,宏观碳偏析总体较低;而国内2205连铸坯等轴晶占主要部分,等轴晶比例为58%,存在严重的中心碳偏析。通过进一步对比国外样品柱状晶区和等轴晶区的致密度得出,柱状晶区平均致密度为0.89,高于等轴晶的0.84,高致密度的凝固组织对降低宏观偏析有利。因此,为了获得较为均匀的连铸坯成分和较低的宏观偏析度,合理的柱状晶和等轴晶比例非常重要。     

Study on Solidification Structure of Wheel Steel Round Billet Using FE‐CA Coupling Model

Solidification structure of wheel steel round billet during the continuous casting process was simulated using FE (Finite Element)–CA (Cellular Automaton) coupling model. Variation of thermo‐physical parameters during solidification was considered based on a thermodynamic database. Meanwhile effect of electromagnetic stirring (EMS) was reflected by increasing both the thermal conductivity and crystal formation rate in liquid phase. It was found that the cooling curves and solidification structure calculated by this model agreed well with that in experiments. Optimum casting temperature range was discussed based on the simulation results and actual conditions in plant. An optimized casting superheat will be no more than 25 °C in order to obtain at least 50% equiaxed crystal ratio, while the degree of segregation in the billet is less than 1.05 correspondingly.     

Analysis of solidification behaviour of low alloy steel ingot casting – simulation and experimental validation

Abstract

Solidification in a small experimental steel ingot casting was studied using finite element based simulation. Using the model, the phenomenon associated with fluid flow, temperature distribution, mushy zone formation, thermal gradient ahead of solidification front, local solidification time at various instances of solidification was examined. The heat transfer was found significant till a critical thickness of the solidified ingot. Air gap analysis during the solidification showed that, in spite of high ferrostatic pressure of liquid metal there is notable air gap in the ingot bottom. The model predicted the final piping shrinkage and some small zones of axial porosity formation. The experimental ingot showed a good match on piping shrinkage and porosity obtained from simulation. The microstructure formation in the experimental ingot could be correlated with simulation results. The approximate regime of columnar to equiaxed transition was estimated form the simulation and was matched with that obtained in the actual experimental ingot. The microstructures of the ingot at typical zones were examined in the ingot and correlated to local solidification time.     

Prediction of the As-Cast Structure of Al-4.0 Wt Pct Cu Ingots

A two-stage simulation strategy is proposed to predict the as-cast structure. During the first stage, a 3-phase model is used to simulate the mold-filling process by considering the nucleation, the initial growth of globular equiaxed crystals and the transport of the crystals. The three considered phases are the melt, air and globular equiaxed crystals. In the second stage, a 5-phase mixed columnar-equiaxed solidification model is used to simulate the formation of the as-cast structure including the distinct columnar and equiaxed zones, columnar-to-equiaxed transition, grain size distribution, macrosegregation, etc. The five considered phases are the extradendritic melt, the solid dendrite, the interdendritic melt inside the equiaxed grains, the solid dendrite, and the interdendritic melt inside the columnar grains. The extra- and interdendritic melts are treated as separate phases. In order to validate the above strategy, laboratory ingots (Al-4.0 wt pct Cu) are poured and analyzed, and a good agreement with the numerical predictions is achieved. The origin of the equiaxed crystals by the “big-bang” theory is verified to play a key role in the formation of the as-cast structure, especially for the castings poured at a low pouring temperature. A single-stage approach that only uses the 5-phase mixed columnar-equiaxed solidification model and ignores the mold filling can predict satisfactory results for a casting poured at high temperature, but it delivers false results for the casting poured at low temperature.     

带结晶器电磁搅拌的大圆坯连铸的数值模拟

在圆坯连铸中,结晶器电磁搅拌器(M-EMS)是常见的改善钢流内流场的手段。众所周知,液芯的流动对最终产品的质量有着重要影响,用M-EMS能优化凝固前沿的流速,进一步促进柱状晶向等轴晶的转变,进而改善铸坯的表面和皮下缺陷。在奥钢联多纳维茨钢厂,绝大多数产品的生产都应用了M-EMS。由于在奥钢联多纳维茨钢厂的恶劣环境下难于进行测量,因此研究采用数值模拟的方法。连铸过程1:1比例的物理模拟也很难实现,因为水的传导率太低,且液态金属不透明或金属处理难,因此数值模拟就成为获得整个过程较好的重要手段。数值模型考虑了流场和电磁场的完全耦合,许多物理问题都用最优参数进行模拟,流场用商业有限元CFD编码软件FLUENT进行计算,电磁场用商业有限元求解器ANSYSEMAG计算。采用这种方法可以研究各种参数对流场和凝固组织的影响,也能揭示搅拌频率和搅拌强度的变化对液芯内部流场的影响。应用数值模拟能够加深对电磁场下连铸过程的认识,也能够找到优化的参数。