Differentiation between Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus from pure culture and aflatoxin-contaminated grapes using PCR-RFLP analysis of aflR-aflJ intergenic spacer

Aflatoxins (AFs) represent the most important single mycotoxin-related food safety problem in developed and developing countries as they have adverse effects on human and animal health. They are produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Both species have different aflatoxinogenic profile. In order to distinguish between A. flavus and A. parasiticus, gene-specific primers were designed to target the intergenic spacer (IGS) for the AF biosynthesis genes, aflJ and aflR. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products were subjected to restriction endonuclease analysis using BglII to look for restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). Our result showed that both species displayed different PCR-based RFLP (PCR-RFLP) profile. PCR products from A. flavus cleaved into 3 fragments of 362, 210, and 102 bp. However, there is only one restriction site for this enzyme in the sequence of A. parasiticus that produced only 2 fragments of 363 and 311 bp. The method was successfully applied to contaminated grapes samples. This approach of differentiating these 2 species would be simpler, less costly, and quicker than conventional sequencing of PCR products and/or morphological identification.     

Expression of Aspergillus oryzae phytase gene in Aspergillus oryzae RIB40 niaD(-)

Aspergillus oryzae RIB40 niaD(-) was transformed using a plasmid constructed with the A. oryzae phytase gene and pNAN8142 vector. The culture broth of the transformant, which was grown in a medium containing starch as a carbon source and polyvinylpyrrolidone showed phytase activity of a maximum of 2.0 units ml(-1) at 37 degrees C, pH 5.5.     

High genetic variability in non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains by using Quadruplex PCR-based assay

Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus isolates always show, by using a multiplex PCR-system, four DNA fragments specific for aflR, nor-1, ver-1, and omt-A genes. Non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains give variable DNA banding pattern lacking one, two, three or four of these genes. Recently, it has been found and reported that some aflatoxin non-producing A. flavus strains show a complete set of genes. Because less is known about the incidence of structural genes aflR, nor-1, ver-1 and omt-A in aflatoxin non-producing strains of A. flavus, we decided to study the frequencies of the aflatoxin structural genes in non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains isolated from food and feed commodities. The results can be summarized as following: 36.5% of the examined non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains showed DNA fragments that correspond to the complete set of genes (quadruplet pattern) as found in aflatoxigenic A. flavus. Forty three strains (32%) showed three DNA banding patterns grouped in four profiles where nor-1, ver-1 and omt-A was the most frequent profile. Twenty five (18.7%) of non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains yielded two DNA banding pattern whereas sixteen (12%) of the strains showed one DNA banding pattern. In one strain, isolated from poultry feed, no DNA bands were found. The nor-1 gene was the most representative between the four aflatoxin structural assayed genes. Lower incidence was found for aflR gene. Our data show a high level of genetic variability among non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus isolates that require greater attention in order to design molecular experiment to distinguish true aflatoxigenic from non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains.     

不同类型丝状真菌发酵产酶性能比较及其混菌发酵性能研究

比较了实验室前期从福建红曲黄酒酿造用曲中分离及台湾生物资源研究及保存中心(BCRC)的不同丝状真菌菌株(黑曲霉AN19、黄曲霉AF20、米曲霉AO35、米根霉RO45、黑曲霉BCRC31494、黄曲霉BCRC31654、米曲霉BCRC30222和米根霉BCRC32229)的产酶性能,从中筛选出产液化酶、糖化酶和蛋白酶活力较高的4株菌株:黄曲霉AF20、米根霉RO45、黑曲霉BCRC31494和米曲霉BCRC30222。将此4株丝状真菌菌株分别进行单一和两两混合发酵糯米,研究其产酶及产糖性能。结果表明:接种纯种米根霉RO45到糯米培养基中,测得的液化酶活力和还原糖产量最高,然而整个发酵过程蛋白酶活力始终较低;米根霉RO45与米曲霉BCRC30222混合发酵,不仅保持较高的液化酶活力和还原糖产量,还能够显著提升发酵体系中的蛋白酶活力。本研究结果对于黄酒传统酿造工艺的改进和优良产酶菌株的筛选提供了重要的基础数据。     

米曲霉3.951菌株与RIB40菌株高产原生质体的制备及再生条件的研究

针对2株米曲霉进行原生质体制备条件的研究,比较了制备材料、菌龄、渗透压稳定剂、复合酶配比、酶解时间以及酶解温度对米曲霉原生质体形成和再生的影响。结果表明,2株米曲霉原生质体制备的最适宜条件稍有差异,其中米曲霉3.951菌株原生质体制备和再生的适宜条件是:以菌丝为制备材料,菌龄为14 h,渗透压稳定剂为0.8 mol/L NaCl,复合酶配比为1.0%纤维素酶、1.0%裂解酶、0.l%蜗牛酶,酶解时间为3 h,酶解温度为35℃;米曲霉RIB40的适宜条件是:以菌丝制备材料,菌龄为12 h,渗透要稳定剂为0.8 mol/L NaCl,复合酶配比是为1.0%纤维素酶、1.0%裂解酶、0.l%蜗牛酶,酶解时间为3 h,酶解温度是35℃。在优化条件下米曲霉3.951菌株释放的原生质体达6.43×107个/g,再生率可达23.5%,米曲霉RIB40释放的原生质体可达4.24×107个/g,再生率达22.41%。     

Cladal relatedness among Aspergillus oryzae isolates and Aspergillus flavus S and L morphotype isolates

Aspergillus flavus is the main etiological agent for aflatoxin contamination of crops. Its close relative, A. oryzae, does not produce aflatoxins and has been widely used to produce fermented foods. We compared the phylogeny of A. oryzae isolates and L- and S-type sclerotial isolates of A. flavus using single nucleotide polymorphisms in the omtA gene in the aflatoxin biosynthesis gene cluster and deletions in and distal to the norB-cypA intergenic region as phylogenetic signals. Aflatoxin-producing ability and sclerotial size also were weighted in the analysis. Like A. flavus, the A. oryzae isolates form a polyphyletic assemblage. A. oryzae isolates in one clade strikingly resemble an A. flavus subgroup of atoxigenic L-type isolates. All toxigenic S-type isolates closely resemble another subgroup of atoxigenic L-type isolates. Because atoxigenic S-type isolates are extremely rare, we hypothesize that loss of aflatoxin production in S-type isolates may occur concomitantly with a change to L-type sclerotia. All toxigenic L-type isolates, unlike A. oryzae, have a 1.0 kb deletion in the norB-cypA region. Although A. oryzae isolates, like S-type, have a 1.5 kb deletion in the norB-cypA region, none were cladally related to S-type A. flavus isolates. Our results show that A. flavus populations are genetically diverse. A. oryzae isolates may descend from certain atoxigenic L-type A. flavus isolates.     

Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus species from Thailand

Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus species were isolated from soil samples from ten different regions within Thailand. Aspergillus flavus was present in all of the soil samples. Unlike previous studies, we found no A. parasiticus or A. flavus capable of both B- and G-type aflatoxin production in any of the samples. A. pseudotamarii, which had not been previously reported from Thailand, was found in four soil samples. In two of the samples A. nomius was determined to be the most abundant aflatoxin-producing species. Based on sequence alignments for three DNA regions (Taka-amylase A (taa), the rRNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and the intergenic region for the aflatoxin biosynthesis genes aflJ and aflR) the A. nomius isolates separated into three well-supported clades. Isolates from one of the A. nomius clades had morphological properties similar to those found for S-type isolates capable of B and G aflatoxin production and could easily be mistaken for these isolates. Our results suggest that such unusual A. nomius isolates could be a previously unrecognized agent for aflatoxin contamination in Thailand.     

米曲霉机理性探索对酱油生产的启示

将相同培养条件下的不同米曲霉（Aspergillus oryzae）菌株之间进行了比较基因组学和蛋白质组学的研究,分析酱油发酵过程中米曲霉的关键基因和蛋白对酱油风味产生的影响。通过米曲霉沪酿3.042（中国）和米曲霉RIB40（日本）菌株的基因组学比较,发现与酱油风味物质形成相关的特异基因。围绕米曲霉3.042及其诱变菌株米曲霉100-8的蛋白质组学比较,找到米曲霉代谢过程中与风味物质形成有关的蛋白,为酱油工艺的改进提供了理论基础。     

Cloning and expression analysis of two catalase genes from Aspergillus oryzae

Fungi contain distinct genes encoding the same class of enzyme that are differentially regulated according to conditions. We cloned two catalase genes, catA and catB, from Aspergillus oryzae. The catA gene predicts a 747-amino-acid polypeptide sharing 81% identity with Aspergillus fumigatus catalase (catA) and 77% with Aspergillus nidulans catalase (catA). The catB gene predicts a 725-amino-acid polypeptide sharing 82% identity with A. fumigatus catalase (catB) and 75% with A. nidulans catalase (catB). However, the catA and catB genes share little homology (41%) with one another, suggesting that each gene belongs to a distinct gene family. Overexpression studies demonstrated that both genes encode a functional catalase. Promoter assays indicated that the catA gene is developmentally regulated as it was preferentially expressed in solid-state cultures undergoing sporulation. However, its expression was not affected by hydrogen peroxide treatment. Conversely, the catB gene was highly expressed under all culture conditions tested, and it was induced by hydrogen peroxide treatment. These results suggest that the catB gene may be mainly used for detoxification of oxidative stress while the catA gene may have another role such as chaperoning proteins in the spore.     

耐酸性木聚糖酶在清酒酿造中的作用

从华根霉 (RhizopuschinensisY92 )发酵液中通过离子交换色谱和凝胶过滤色谱分离纯化获得一种耐酸性木聚糖酶R ,将它和另外 2种耐酸性木聚糖酶 :米曲霉 (AspergillusoryzaeRIB12 8)木聚糖酶B和白曲菌 (AspergilluskawachiiIFO43 0 8)木聚糖酶C分别应用于清酒酿造中 ,结果表明 ,木聚糖酶B可以促进米细胞的溶解 ,对于原料米的利用率有明显的提高 ,而木聚糖酶C和木聚糖酶R的作用则不太明显     

Development of an efficient gene-targeting system in Aspergillus luchuensis by deletion of the non-homologous end joining system

The industrial fungus Aspergillus luchuensis is used to produce a distilled spirit in Okinawa Island, Japan. Recently, the genome sequence of A. luchuensis RIB2604 (Aspergillus awamori NBRC 4314) was revealed and many functional genes are now expected to be analyzed. Gene targeting is necessary for analyzing the function of a gene; however, gene targeting frequencies in A. luchuensis are very low. To develop a highly efficient gene-targeting system for A. luchuensis, we disrupted A. luchuensis ligD (ALligD) encoding the human DNA ligase IV (ligIV) homologue using an Agrobacterium mediated gene transformation method. Deletion of ALligD dramatically improved homologous recombination efficiency (reached 100%) compared to that in the wild-type strain (0.8%), when 1000-bp homologous flanking regions were used. The ALligD disruptant showed no apparent defect in vegetative growth, and it exhibited increased sensitivity to phleomycin and high methyl methanesulphonate concentrations compared to the wild-type strain. Furthermore, using this ALligD disruptant, we disrupted ALpksP encoding an Aspergillus fumigatus polyketide synthase P (alb1/pksP) orthologue. The ALpksP disruptant displayed a decolourized conidial phenotype. This result indicated that ALpksP is a key factor for conidial black pigmentation in A. luchuensis. Our results indicate that the ALligD mutant is an efficient host for targeted gene disruption in A. luchuensis.     

Identification of genetic defects in the atoxigenic biocontrol strain Aspergillus flavus K49 reveals the presence of a competitive recombinant group in field populations

Contamination of corn, cotton, peanuts and tree nuts by aflatoxins is a severe economic burden for growers. A current biocontrol strategy is to use non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus strains to competitively exclude field toxigenic Aspergillus species. A. flavus K49 does not produce aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) and is currently being tested in corn-growing fields in Mississippi. We found that its lack of production of aflatoxins and CPA resulted from single nucleotide mutations in the polyketide synthase gene and hybrid polyketide-nonribosomal peptide synthase gene, respectively. Furthermore, based on single nucleotide polymorphisms of the aflatoxin biosynthesis omtA gene and the CPA biosynthesis dmaT gene, we conclude that K49, AF36 and previously characterized TX9-8 form a biocontrol group. These isolates appear to be derived from recombinants of typical large and small sclerotial morphotype strains. This finding provides an easy way to select future biocontrol strains from the reservoir of non-aflatoxigenic populations in agricultural fields.     

Stable repeated-batch production of recombinant dye-decolorizing peroxidase (rDyP) from Aspergillus oryzae

Recombinant Aspergillus oryzae expressing a dye-decolorizing peroxidase gene (dyp) was cultivated for repeated-batch production of recombinant dye-decolorizing peroxidase (rDyP) using maltose as a carbon source. High-level rDyP activity in limitation of carbon and nitrogen sources was maintained stably for 26 cycles of repeated 1-d batches of A. oryzae pellets without any additional pH control. Cultures maintained at 4 degrees C for 20 d resumed rDyP production following a single day of incubation. One liter filtrated crude rDyP containing 4600 U rDyP decolorized 5.07 g RBBR at the apparent decolorization rate of 17.7 mg l(-1) min(-1).     

High-throughput genotyping of filamentous fungus Aspergillus oryzae based on colony direct polymerase chain reaction

High-throughput genotyping of Aspergillus oryzae was achieved using an FTA card for the extraction of a genomic DNA template for polymerase chain reaction from a fungal colony growing on an agar plate. This method was then applied to detect other fungal species from agar slants and food materials. This method offers a convenient tool for the genotyping of filamentous fungi without using an organic solvent or specialized equipment.     

白黄链霉菌TD-1产帕马霉素对黄曲霉2219等霉菌的抑制作用

为研究微生物及其次级代谢产物对黄曲霉2219等霉菌的抑制机理,以分离于土壤中的白黄链霉菌(Streptomyces alboflavus)TD-1为研究对象,利用薄层色谱、硅胶柱层析、高效液相色谱和液相-质谱联用技术对其代谢产生的活性物质——帕马霉素进行分离。利用扫描电子显微镜、荧光显微镜和高效液相色谱方法研究帕马霉素对黄曲霉2219等霉菌生长的抑制效果及抑制机理。结果表明,白黄链霉菌TD-1上清液和菌丝体中活性物质的分子式预测为C₃₅H₆₁NO₇,为帕马霉素及其同系物,相对分子质量为593、607、621、635、649。通过扫描电子显微镜观察帕马霉素处理后的霉菌细胞形态,其孢子和菌丝体会发生不同程度畸变。帕马霉素对桔青霉的最小抑菌浓度(minimal inhibitory concentration, MIC)为0.125mg/mL,对灰霉的MIC为0.500mg/mL,对黄曲霉2219、黑曲霉、哈茨木霉和米曲霉的 MIC 均为1.000mg/mL。帕马霉素对霉菌的作用靶点为其细胞膜的麦角甾醇,抑制机制是破坏细胞壁的完整性,改变细胞膜的通透性,影响线粒体的能量代谢,抑制菌丝细胞膜中麦角甾醇的生物合成。帕马霉素对黄曲霉2219产生黄曲霉毒素B₁的抑制率达到98.3%。因此,可利用白黄链霉菌 TD-1及其代谢产物帕马霉素对食品原料中的产毒真菌污染进行生物防治。     

转录因子UstR调控黄曲霉毒素的合成及其生物学功能研究

目的 明确黄曲霉中Zn(II)2Cys6转录因子稻曲菌素B调控蛋白R (Ustiloxin B biosynthesis protein R,UstR)功能,解析UstR对黄曲霉生长、次级代谢和黄曲霉毒素(aflatoxin,AF)合成的调控。方法 本研究利用聚乙二醇介导的同源重组构建ustR基因缺失突变体;比较敲除突变体和野生型菌株在黄曲霉生长发育、胁迫响应、侵染能力、AF合成以及次级代谢产物合成等方面的差异,并通过ELISA试剂盒测定AF合成底物变化,利用RT-qPCR验证AF合成相关基因的转录水平改变,明确转录因子UstR对AF合成的调控作用。结果 基因敲除突变体的分生孢子形成受抑制,孢子产量降低,但菌核形成能力显著提高;ustR缺失不影响黄曲霉细胞壁完整性、胁迫响应能力以及侵染能力;UstR能够影响黄曲霉多种次级代谢产物产量,其中UstR通过正调控AF合成基因簇表达影响AF生物合成。结论 UstR是黄曲霉重要的Zn(II)2Cys6 转录因子,调控黄曲霉生长发育及AF产生,研究进一步完善了AF合成调控网络,为AF污染防控提供了新的防控潜在靶点。     

Detection of aflatoxin-producing molds in Korean fermented foods and grains by multiplex PCR

An assay based on multiplex PCR was applied for the detection of potential aflatoxin-producing molds in Korean fermented foods and grains. Three genes, avfA, omtA, and ver-1, coding for key enzymes in aflatoxin biosynthesis, were used as aflatoxin-detecting target genes in multiplex PCR. DNA extracted from Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium expansum, and Fusarium verticillioides was used as PCR template to test specificity of the multiplex PCR assay. Positive results were achieved only with DNA that was extracted from the aflatoxigenic molds A. flavus and A. parasiticus in all three primer pairs. This result was supported by aflatoxin detection with direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DC-ELISA). The PCR assay required just a few hours, enabling rapid and simultaneous detection of many samples at a low cost. A total of 22 Meju samples, 24 Doenjang samples, and 10 barley samples commercially obtained in Korea were analyzed. The DC-ELISA assay for aflatoxin detection gave negative results for all samples, whereas the PCR-based method gave positive results for 1 of 22 Meju samples and 2 of 10 barley samples. After incubation of the positive samples with malt extract agar, DC-ELISA also gave positive results for aflatoxin detection. All Doenjang samples were negative by multiplex PCR and DC-ELISA assay, suggesting that aflatoxin contamination and the presence of aflatoxin-producing molds in Doenjang are probably low.     

Cloning of a novel tyrosinase-encoding gene (melB) from Aspergillus oryzae and its overexpression in solid-state culture (Rice Koji)

We have cloned a novel tyrosinase-encoding gene (melB) specifically expressed in solid-state culture of Aspergillus oryzae. A tyrosinase-encoding gene (melO) from A. oryzae was already cloned and the protein structures of its catalytic and copper binding domains were investigated. However, our recent results revealed that the melO gene was highly expressed in submerged culture but not in solid-state culture. Because tyrosinase activity was also detected in solid-state culture, we assumed that another tyrosinase gene other than melO is expressed in solid-state culture. Another tyrosinase gene was screened using the expressed sequence tag (EST) library. One redundant cDNA clone homologous with the tyrosinase gene was found in the collection of wheat bran culture. Northern blot analysis revealed that the gene corresponding to the cDNA clone was specifically expressed in solid-state culture (koji making), but not in submerged culture. Molecular cloning showed that the gene carried six exons interrupted by five introns and had an open reading frame encoding 616 amino acid residues. This gene was designated as melB. The deduced amino acid sequence of the gene had weak homology (24%-33%) with MelO and other fungal tyrosinases but the sequences of the copper binding domains were highly conserved. When the melB gene was expressed under the control of the glaB promoter in solid-state culture, tyrosinase activity was markedly enhanced and the culture mass was browned with the melanization by MelB tyrosinase. These results indicated that the melB gene encodes a novel tyrosinase associated with melanization in solid-state culture.     

Identification and toxigenic potential of the industrially important fungi, Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae

Mold strains belonging to the species Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae are highly valued as koji molds in the traditional preparation of fermented foods, such as miso, sake, and shoyu, and as protein production hosts in modern industrial processes. A. oryzae and A. sojae are relatives of the wild molds Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. All four species are classified to the A. flavus group. Strains of the A. flavus group are characterized by a high degree of morphological similarity. Koji mold species are generally perceived of as being nontoxigenic, whereas wild molds are associated with the carcinogenic aflatoxins. Thus, reliable identification of individual strains is very important for application purposes. This review considers the pheno- and genotypic markers used in the classification of A. flavus group strains and specifically in the identification of A. oryzae and A. sojae strains. Separation of A. oryzae and A. sojae from A. flavus and A. parasiticus, respectively, is inconsistent, and both morphologic and molecular evidence support conspecificity. The high degree of identity is reflected by the divergent identification of reference cultures maintained in culture collections. As close relatives of aflatoxin-producing wild molds, koji molds possess an aflatoxin gene homolog cluster. Some strains identified as A. oryzae and A. sojae have been implicated in aflatoxin production. Identification of a strain as A. oryzae or A. sojae is no guarantee of its inability to produce aflatoxins or other toxic metabolites. Toxigenic potential must be determined specifically for individual strains. The species taxa, A. oryzae and A. sojae, are currently conserved by societal issues.     

黑曲霉抗产毒黄曲霉作用的初步研究

采用90 × 2.6 × 1013N+/cm2 注入黑曲霉筛选能抗黄曲霉(Aflavus)生长的突变菌株,以利发酵中控制被黄曲霉污染的原材料的再污染。进行产毒黄曲霉与被离子注入的黑曲霉混合对峙、原黑曲霉菌株与黄曲霉单独培养生长及混合对峙培养实验。结果显示经离子注入的菌株及未注入菌株均对黄曲霉产生抑制作用,但后者仅有微弱抑制,前者不仅表现出几乎不能使黄曲霉生长,且已长出的黄曲霉菌丝体较瘦小,并呈灰白色。从培养基中提取物检验结果显示,黄曲霉组表现出有较明显的荧光反应,而黑曲霉菌株对峙培养物提取物中有微弱的荧光反应,其黑曲霉突变株对峙培养物未见荧光反应检出。这表明黑曲霉原菌株虽然能对黄曲霉只有微弱抑制,但表现出黄曲霉产毒和合成色素能力下降。与对照组相比,突变株有较强抑制黄曲霉生长能力。