Calculation of phase equilibria for AISI M2 high-speed steel

Thermo-calc computations have been made for the iron-rich corner of the system Fe-Cr-Mo-W-V-C to obtain phase equilibria for AISI M2 high-speed steel (German designation S-6-5-2). The calculations describe the main transformation temperatures of this steel with good accuracy. The phases which are present during austenitization and their volume fractions are also correctly accounted for. The solidification sequence of the M2 steel, and in particular the occurrence of M₂C in the ledeburitic eutectic, can be explained if the segregation of alloying elements and carbon in the interdendritic spaces is taken into account. The secondary hardening precipitates can be described in satisfactory approximation on the basis of local two-phase equilibria between each carbide and the matrix, indicating that their compositions are essentially determined by the nucleation process.     

Fracture toughness of AISI M2 and AISI M7 high-speed steels

A study has been made of the fracture toughness of AISI M2 and M7 high-speed steels. Fracture toughness of these steels was found to depend principally on austenitizing temperature and hardness level. The results are highly reproducible. At usual working hardness levels the fracture toughness of M7 and M2 were approximately equal. Instrumented unnotched Charpy tests showed M2 to have higher impact strength than M7. A model for fracture that assumed preexisting flaws was tested with the data obtained. The model is consistent with the results obtained for M7 but not for M2. The assumption of preexisting flaws in M2 high-speed steel does not seem warranted. Possible mechanisms for crack initiation in M2 are discussed briefly.     

Solidification microstructure and M2C carbide decomposition in a spray-formed high-speed steel

The solidified carbide morphology, the decomposition behavior of the M₂C carbide, and the carbide distribution after forging of an Fe-1.28C-6.4W-5.0Mo-3.1V-4.1Cr-7.9Co (wt pct) high-speed steel prepared by spray forming have been investigated. The spray-formed microstructure has been characterized as a discontinuous network of plate-shaped M₂C carbides and a uniform distribution of fine, spherical MC carbides. The metastable M₂C carbides formed during solidification have been fully decomposed into MC and M₆C carbides after sufficient annealing at high temperatures. Initially, the M₆C carbides nucleate at M₂C/austenite interfaces and proceed to grow. In the second stage, the MC carbides form either inside the M₆C carbides or at the interfaces between M₆C carbides. With this increasing degree of decomposition of the M₂C carbide, the carbides become more uniformly distributed through hot forging, which produces a significant increase in ultimate bend strength. The decomposition treatment of M₂C carbide has been found to be most important for obtaining a fine homogeneous carbide distribution after hot forging.     

Correlation of microstructure and fracture toughness in three high-speed steel rolls

The objective of this study is to clarify the fracture characteristics of high-speed steel (HSS) rolls in terms of microstructural factors such as matrix phase and primary carbide particles. Three HSS rolls with different chromium contents were fabricated by centrifugal casting, and the effect of the chromium addition was investigated through microstructural analysis, fracture-mechanism study, and toughness measurement. The hard and brittle primary carbides, as well as the eutectic carbides (ledeburites), were segregated in the intercellular regions and dominated overall properties. Observation of the fracture process revealed that these primary carbides cleaved first to form microcracks at low stress-intensity factor levels and that the microcracks then readily propagated along the intercellular networks. The addition of chromium to a certain level yielded microstructural modification, including the homogeneous distribution of primary carbides, thereby leading to enhancement of fracture toughness of the HSS rolls.     

Correlation of microstructure and thermal-fatigue properties of centrifugally cast high-speed steel rolls

This is a study of thermal-fatigue properties in centrifugally cast high-speed steel (HSS) rolls. The thermal-fatigue mechanism was investigated, with special focus on the roll microstructure and the increase in tensile stress which led the specimens to fracture when it reached the tensile strength. The thermal-fatigue test results indicated that the thermal-fatigue life decreased with increasing maximum temperature of the thermal-fatigue cycle. The results were then interpreted based on the amount of carbides and the cyclic-softening phenomenon associated with the exposed time to elevated temperatures. The coarse intercellular carbides on the specimen surface acted as fatigue-crack initiation sites as they cleaved at a low stress level to form cracks. The roll having the lowest matrix hardness and the smallest amount of intercellular carbides, thus, showed better thermal fatigue properties than the other rolls. For the improvement of the thermal-fatigue properties of the rolls, this study suggests a homogeneous distribution of carbides by reducing the carbide segregation formed along the solidification cell boundary and by optimizing the roll compositions.     

Effects of mischmetal addition on phase transformation and as-cast microstructure characteristics of M2 high-speed steel

The influence of mischmetal (Ce-La) addition on phase transformation and as-cast microstructure characteristics of M2 high-speed steel (HSS) was investigated using Thermo-Calc software, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffractometry and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry. The results showed that the measured phase transition points of M2 HSS were broadly consistent with the theoretical results. After mischmetal addition, the liquidus peak temperature, the peak temperature of the eutectic precipitation of M₆C and MC were all increased, especially for the M₆C which was affected significantly and increased about 31 °C. The contents of Mo and V in the eutectic carbide decreased and that of Fe increased, while in the matrix, the Mo, V and Cr contents all increased slightly. Furthermore, the microstructure of as-cast dendrite and ledeburite were refined, the total eutectic carbide content decreased and distributed into a discontinuous network, the lamellar spacing of M₂C was reduced and the lamellae became thinner.     

The effect of double austenitization on the microstructure and fracture toughness of AISI M2 high speed steel

In this study, the effect of double austenitization on microstructure and toughness of AISI M2 high speed steel was investigated. For double austenitization treatment, the specimens, which are hardened initially at 1220°C and quenched in air, were hardened for a second time in the temperature range 1150 – 1050°C. For comparison purposes, another set of specimens is austenitized singly in the temperature range 1150 – 1050°C. Tempering process was carried out between 500 – 640°C. A double austenitization causes a fine carbide precipitation in the matrix, having sizes in the range of 0.10 ± 0.05 μm and volume fractions of between 1 and 6%. It is shown that a double austenitization treatment causes a decrease in fracture toughness (K_Ic), when compared with single austenitized ones. The reason for the lower K_Ic values of double austenitized specimens are attributed to these fine carbide precipitates: It is suggested that they limit the plastic deformation capability of the matrix and yield lower fracture toughness values.     

The influence of microstructure on the fracture toughness of AISI M2 high‐speed steel

When modelling the fracture toughness of the investigated AISI M2 high‐speed steel, the stress‐modified critical strain criterion was used. The very important influence of microstructural parameters such as the volume fraction of undissolved eutectic carbides, their mean diameter, and the mean distance between the carbides, as well as the volume fraction of retained austenite in the matrix, was also taken into account. The influence of yield stress and fracture ductility was expressed in terms of the hardness of the steel. It was found that the plastic zone which develops, during fracture toughness measurements, ahead of the fatigue crack tip, was, as a rule, smaller than the prior austenite grain size, so that, in the case of the investigated high‐speed steel, the size of these grains did not have any influence on the measured fracture toughness value. However, importantly, the calculated fracture toughness values, which were derived using a newly developed semi‐empirical equation, agreed well with the experimental results obtained by the authors, as well as with results obtained by other authors.     

Hot workability of M2 type high-speed steel

The hot workability of an M2 type HSS in cast, forged and rolled condition has been studied by means of a torsion test and metallography. Continuous tests were used to determine the temperature and strain-rate dependence of the flow stress and temperature dependence of the strain to fracture, while multistage tests were used to determine the extent of interpass softening. Temperature and strain dependence of the flow stress is described by a relation of the form: in which the activation energy for hot working (Q_HW) is found to be temperature dependent. The hot ductility of the cast steel is not only lower but is also little affected by temperature in comparison to worked steels, in spite of the fact that critical strain for dynamic recrystallization is smaller, and the extent of metadynamic and static recrystallization during interpass interval is more extensive in the former. This is related to a large volume fraction of carbides, which give rise to a high stored energy and enhanced recrystallization on the one hand, and to the suppression of recrystallization within the continuous network of carbides on the other hand. Carbides give rise to an easy nucleation, growth and coalescence of cracks.     

Correlation of microstructure and surface roughness of disc drums fabricated by hot forging of an AISI 430F stainless steel

The surface roughness of disc drums fabricated by hot forging of an AISI 430F stainless steel was investigated. Emphasis was placed on the role of microstructural changes, which depend on postforging annealing conditions. In the forged drum specimens, MnS inclusions were heavily elongated, and a large amount of martensite was found. Three different annealing conditions were used on the forged drum specimens to completely or partially decompose martensite. The surface roughness tests were conducted on these specimens, and then the test data were compared via hardness and microstructures. The top plane of disc drums, where MnS inclusions were elongated perpendicular to the machined surface, showed a good surface roughness because of the free-machining effect of MnS. However, the side plane, where MnS inclusions were aligned parallel to the machined surface, showed an increased surface roughness due to reduction of the MnS effect. These findings suggested that a proper amount of martensite formed during forging and annealing would be beneficial for cost efficiency, as well as machinability of the 430F stainless steel products.     

Fracture toughness of aisi M2 high-speed steel and corresponding matrix tool steel

The influence of microstructural variations on the fracture toughness of two tool steels with compositions 6 pct W-5 pct Mo-4 pct Cr-2 pct V-0.8 pct C (AISI M2 high-speed steel) and 2 pct W-2.75 pct Mo-4.5 pct Cr-1 pct V-0.5 pct C (VASCO-MA) was investigated. In the as-hardened condition, the M2 steel has a higher fracture toughness than the MA steel, although the latter steel is softer. In the tempered condition, MA is softer and has a higher fracture toughness than M2. When the hardening temperature is below 1095 °C (2000 °F), tempering of both steels causes embrittlement,i.e., a reduction of fracture toughness as well as hardness. The fracture toughness of both steels was enhanced by increasing the grain size. The steel samples with intercept grain size of 5 (average grain diameter of 30 microns) or coarser exhibit 2 to 3 MPa√m (2 to 3 ksi√in.) higher fracture toughness than samples with intercept grain size of 10 (average grain diameter of 15 microns) or finer. Tempering temperature has no effect on the fracture toughness of M2 and MA steels as long as the final tempered hardness of the steels is constant. Retained austenite has no influence on the fracture toughness of as-hardened MA steel, but a high content of retained austenite appears to raise the fracture toughness of as-hardened M2 steel. There is a temperature of austenitization for each tool steel at which the retained austenite content in the as-quenched samples is a maximum. The above described results were explained through changes in the microstructure and the fracture modes. CHONGMIN KIM, formerly with Climax Molybdenum Company of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.     

Effect of cooling rate on the transformation characteristics and precipitation behaviour of carbides in AISI M42 high-speed steel

The influence of cooling rate during austenitising process on the transformation characteristics and precipitation behaviour of carbides in AISI M42 high-speed steel was investigated through thermodynamic calculation, dilatometry, microstructural analysis, and steel inclusion analysis system. Results show that under low cooling rate (<1?K?s^?1), the carbides in the steel are coarse, growing along the grain boundaries, and forming a network distribution. Under high cooling rate (≥1?K?s^?1), the morphology of carbides turns into block shape, and martensitic microstructure has been achieved. The volume fraction of the carbides decreases with the increase of cooling rate, meanwhile, the size distribution of the carbides is meliorated. However, when the cooling rate further increases from 5 to 20?K?s^?1, the precipitated carbides becomes non-uniform with the increasing cooling rate. Consequently, an appropriate cooling rate of heat treatment can be selected to optimise the distribution of carbides.     

Microstructural evolution during laser cladding of M2 high-speed steel

Laser cladding of gas-atomized M2 high-speed steel on the mild steel substrate was performed using scan rates of 1 to 10 mm/s, scan line spacings of 0.1 to 0.5 mm, and powder feed rates of 1 to 10 g/min, for a given laser power of 400 W. This article presents a detailed study of the microstructural evolution during laser cladding. The effect of scan rate, scan line spacing, and powder feed rate on cooling rate can be described in terms of the cladding-layer thickness, i.e., the thinner the layer, the higher the cooling rate. The degree of metastability in the laser-clad microstructure can be understood in terms of the lattice parameter of the bcc phase. The lattice parameter of the bcc phase increased with increasing layer thickness and reached a maximum value at a thickness of 0.3 mm. Correspondingly, the microstructure varied from a cellular or dendritic structure of δ ferrite and austenite to a mixture of martensite and retained austenite. However, further increasing the layer thickness led to a decrease of both the lattice parameters of the bcc phase and the proportion of retained austenite in the martensite. This was accompanied by an increase of the amount of carbide at the prior austenitic grain boundaries and a decrease of the carbon content in the martensite and retained austenite.     

B4C对M3:2粉末冶金高速钢组织与力学性能的影响

本文以水雾化M3:2高速钢预合金粉末为原料,添加适量碳化硼(B4C)粉末颗粒,球磨混合均匀后,经700 MPa单向压制,1190℃和1230℃真空烧结,制备出了综合性能优良的粉末冶金高速钢(powder metallurgy high-speed steel,PM HSS)材料。通过示差扫描量热分析仪(differential scanning calorimeter,DSC)、X射线衍射仪(X-ray diffractometer,XRD)、电子探针显微分析仪(electro-probe microanalyzer,EPMA)、扫描电子显微镜(scanning electron microscope,SEM)和万能材料试验机等对烧结粉末冶金高速钢进行物相分析、显微结构观察和力学性能测试。结果表明,当添加体积分数为0.3%B4C时,M3:2粉末冶金高速钢的最佳烧结温度可降低约40℃;1190℃烧结温度下,添加体积分数为0.3%B4C的粉末冶金高速钢硬度为HRC 54.1,抗弯强度3074.09 MPa,与达到致密化时未添加B4C的粉末冶金高速钢相比,硬度提升3.6%,抗弯强度提升10.5%。加入的B4C粉末颗粒除了发挥烧结助剂的作用和降低烧结温度外,还会参与合金化,增强材料力学性能。     

Influence of rare earths on eutectic carbides in AISI M2 high speed steel

The effect of rare earths on the morphology and microstructure of eutectic carbides in M2 high speed steel was studied. The results showed that rare earths promoted the formation of fishbone-like M6C eutectic carbides, compared to plate-like M2C carbides in ingots without modification. The formation of M6C was expected to be caused by rare earth inclusions which acted effectively as the substrate for nucleation of M6C carbides during solidification. M2C and M6C eutectic carbides exhibited different stability during heating. M2C eutectic carbides were much less stable than M6C carbides, and decomposed at high temperatures, favoring the spheroidization and refinement of carbides in high speed steels.     

Evolution of microstructure and texture during casting of AISI 304 stainless steel strip

The solidification behavior of AISI 304 stainless steel strip was studied using a melt/substrate contact apparatus, whereby a copper substrate embedded in a moving paddle is rapidly immersed into a steel melt to produce thin (∼1-mm gage) as-cast coupons. For cases where other casting conditions were kept constant, the effect of substrate topography and melt superheat on the development of microstructure and texture during solidification was studied using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and optical microscopy. It was found that nucleation and growth of grains during solidification were influenced both by substrate topography and melt superheat. A ridged substrate produced a high density of randomly oriented grains at the chill surface with the preferred growth of 〈001〉-oriented grains perpendicular to the substrate wall producing a coarse columnar grain structure exhibiting a strong 〈001〉 fiber texture at the strip center. In contrast, a smooth substrate resulted in a lower nucleation density to produce a very coarse-grained columnar microstructure with moderate and essentially constant 〈001〉 fiber texture throughout the strip thickness. By the manipulation of casting parameters, it is possible to produce strip-cast austenitic stainless steel with a particular microstructure and texture.     

Effect of welding processes on tensile, impact, hardness and microstructure of AISI 409M ferritic stainless joints fabricated using duplex stainless steel filler metal

 The present investigation is aimed at to study the effect of welding processes such as shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding on tensile and impact properties of the ferritic stainless steel conforming to AISI 409M grade. Rolled plates of 4 mm thickness were used as the base material for preparing single pass butt welded joints. Tensile and impact properties, micro hardness, microstructure and fracture surface morphology of the welded joints have been evaluated and the results are compared. From this investigation, it is found that gas tungsten arc welded joints of ferritic stainless steel showed superior tensile and impact properties compared with shielded metal arc and gas metal arc welded joints and this is mainly due to the presence of finer grains in fusion zone and heat affected zone.     

The influence of alkaline salt bath quenching on the microstructure and mechanical properties of AISI D2 steel

In this work, the microstructure and mechanical properties of AISI D2 tool steel is compared after air cooling and quenching in alkaline salt bath (60% KOH and 40% NaOH). The results have shown that the hardness of the samples quenched in alkaline salt bath with different temperatures followed by tempering at 540°C was higher than the hardness of air cooled sample. The maximum hardness from surface to centre of the samples was achieved after quenching in salt bath at 220°C. The microstructure and consequently the mechanical properties were altered after quenching in different media. It is also shown that hardening of D2 steel in alkaline salt bath can result in higher strength values than air cooling while there was no significant change in the impact energy of the samples.

Dans ce travail, on compare la microstructure et les propriétés mécaniques de l’acier à outils AISI D2 après refroidissement à l’air ou après trempe dans un bain de sel alcalin (60% KOH et 40% NaOH). Les résultats ont montré que la dureté des échantillons trempés dans le bain de sel alcalin à différentes températures suivi d’un revenu à 540°C était plus élevée que la dureté de l’échantillon refroidi à l’air. On a obtenu la dureté maximale, depuis la surface jusqu’au centre des échantillons, par trempe dans le bain de sel à 220°C. La microstructure et, par conséquent, les propriétés mécaniques étaient altérées après la trempe dans différents médias. On montre également que l’endurcissement de l’acier D2 dans un bain de sel alcalin peut résulter en des valeurs plus élevées de résistance à la traction que lors du refroidissement à l’air alors qu’il n’y avait pas de changement important de l’énergie de rupture des échantillons.     

Morphology,microstructure and decomposition behavior of M2 C carbides in high speed steel

The morphology, microstructure and decomposition behavior of M2 C carbides in high speed steels with different chemical compositions have been investigated by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction and X-ray diffraction.The results show that the morphology and substructure of M2 C carbides are very sensitive to chemical compositions of high speed steels.M2 C carbides present the plate-like shape in tungsten-molybdenum steel and present the polycrystal orientation in the eutectic cell.In contrast, they show the fibrous shape in molybdenum-base steel and exhibit the monocrystal orientation.Plate-like and fibrous M2 C carbides are both metastable and decompose into M6 C together with MC at high temperatures.MC nucleates inside the plate-like M2 C while it is formed at the fibrous M2 C/matrix interface during the decomposition process.Such differences are expected to arise from different compositions of plate-like and fibrous M2 C carbides.     

添加青铜粉对烧结316L不锈钢组织和性能的影响

研究了添加青铜粉对316L烧结不锈钢的密度、硬度和微观组织的影响。结果表明：添加青铜粉末提高了316L不锈钢的生坯密度。烧结样品的密度和硬度均随青铜粉体积分数的增大而提高，烧结温度升高也有利于316L烧结不锈钢密度和硬度的增大，最佳烧结温度为1200℃左右。当青铜粉的体积分数为30％、烧结温度为1200℃时，316不锈钢的最大相对密度和硬度分别为95．1％和HRB83。添加青铜粉引起的液相烧结使不锈钢颗粒球形化趋势明显，颗粒表面平直化。