ALUMINUM PRODUCTION USING HIGH-TEMPERATURE SOLAR PROCESS HEAT

The primary metals industry is one of the most energy intensive in the manufacturing sector, and is consequently also a major source of climate-altering gases. The replacement of electrolysis or electrothermal processes with direct reduction processes using high-temperature solar process heat may well be economical, especially when the costs of CO₂ emission are included in the analysis. In particular, aluminum production by carbothermal reduction is a very high-temperature, energy-intensive process. The temperature required, in the range 2300–2500 K, is too high for practical process heat addition from combustion sources alone. Only electric-arc furnaces or highly concentrated solar are capable of supplying process heat at these high temperatures. The aluminum industry presents unique opportunities for industrial implementation of solar process heat. Use of high-temperature solar process heat can drastically reduce the emission of climate-altering gases, reduce the reliance on electricity, and make possible a direct thermal route from the ore to metal. Two industrially-researched direct aluminum or aluminum–silicon alloy producing processes, and one process that forms an intermediate AlN compound are proposed for study and demonstration projects for alternative solar-thermal processes to replace the Hall–Héroult process.     

Configuration design and performance optimum analysis of a solar-driven high temperature steam electrolysis system for hydrogen production

A new solar-driven high temperature steam electrolysis system for hydrogen production is presented, in which the main energy consumption processes such as steam electrolysis processes, heat transfer processes, and product compression processes are included. The detailed thermodynamic-electrochemical modeling of the solid oxide steam electrolysis (SOSE) is carried out, and consequently, the electrical and thermal energy required by every energy consumption process are determined. The efficiency of the system is derived, from which the effects of some of the important parameters such as the operating temperature, component thickness of the SOSE, leakage resistance, effectiveness of heat exchangers, and inlet rate of water on the performance of the system are discussed. It is found that the efficiency attains its maximum when a proper current density is chosen. The ratio of the required electric energy to the total energy input of the system is calculated, and consequently, the problem how to rationally operate the solar concentrating beam splitting device is investigated. The results obtained will be helpful for further understanding the optimal design and performance improvement of a practical solar-driven high temperature steam electrolysis system for hydrogen production.     

Efficient utilization of waste heat from molten carbonate fuel cell in parabolic trough power plant for electricity and hydrogen coproduction

Direct steam generating parabolic trough power plant is an important technology to match future electric energy demand. One of the problems related to its emergence is energy storage. Solar-to-hydrogen is a promising technology for solar energy storage. Electrolysis is among the most processes of hydrogen production recently investigated. High temperature steam electrolysis is a clean process to efficiently produce hydrogen. In this paper, steam electrolysis process using solar energy is used to produce hydrogen. A heat recovery steam generator generates high temperature steam thanks to the molten carbonate fuel cell's waste heat. The analytical study investigates the energy efficiency of solar power plant, molten carbonate fuel cell and electrolyser. The impact of waste heat utilization on electricity and hydrogen generation is analysed. The results of calculations done with MATLAB software show that fuel cell produces 7.73 MWth of thermal energy at design conditions. 73.37 tonnes of hydrogen and 14.26 GWh of electricity are yearly produced. The annual energy efficiency of electrolyser is 70% while the annual mean electric efficiency of solar power plant is 18.30%.The proposed configuration based on the yearly electricity production and hydrogen generation has presented a good performance.     

Sustainable energy generation processes in the deserts of solar-rich countries

A sustainable energy generation system in solar-rich countries can establish the process of desert community development in these areas. To test the validity of this hypothesis, potential assessment of deserts’ solar power is carried out. The results reveal that considerable amounts of electric power and potable water can be produced locally at these deserts sites. In this paper, the basic needs of a sizeable desert community are identified; their total energy requirements are estimated and then the capability of available solar potential to meet these energy needs is calculated. A sustainable energy generation model is devised to attain the objective of power generation and potable water production. The processes of solar power generation, desalination and storage systems are built in the proposed model. The sustainable development process is based on the utilization of renewable energy, self-contained nature of energy generation system and environment-friendly nature of power and water production.     

Thermal conductivity enhancement in a latent heat storage system

Latent heat storage systems especially those employing organic materials have been reported to exhibit a rather slow thermal response. This is mainly due to the relatively low thermal conductivity of organic latent heat materials. In this study, experiments were carried out to investigate a method of enhancing the thermal conductivity of paraffin wax by embedding aluminum powder in it. The size of the aluminum powder particles was 80 μm. The tested mass fractions in the PCM-aluminum composite material were 0.1, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 of aluminum. The used mass fraction in the experimental work was 0.5.The experiments were conducted by using a compact PCM solar collector. In this collector, the absorber-container unit performed the function of absorbing the solar energy and storing the phase change material (PCM). The solar energy was stored in the PCM and was discharged to cold water flowing in pipes located inside the PCM. Charging and discharging processes were carried out. The propagation of the melting and freezing fronts was studied during the charging and the discharging processes. The time wise temperatures of the PCM were recorded during the processes of charging and discharging. The solar intensity was recorded for the charging process. It was found that the charging time was reduced by approximately 60% by adding aluminum powder in the wax. In the discharging process, experiments were conducted for different water flow rates of 9-20.4 kg/h. It was found that the useful heat gained increased when adding aluminum powder in the wax as compared to the case of pure paraffin wax. The heat transfer characteristics were studied.     

Hydrogen production through solar energy water electrolysis

Various methods of making hydrogen from water have been proposed, but at the present time the only practical way to make hydrogen from water without fossil fuel is electrolysis. The development of a new, advanced, water electrolyser has become necessary for use in hydrogen energy systems and in electricity storage systems. All the new possible electrolysis processes, suitable for large-scale plants, are being analysed, in view of their combination with solar electricity source. A study of system interactions between large-scale photovoltaic plants, for electrical energy supply, and water electrolysis, is carried out. The subsystems examined include power conditioning, control and loads, as they are going to operate. Water electrolysis systems have no doubt been improved considerably and are expected to become the principal means to produce a large amount of hydrogen in the coming hydrogen economy age. Thus, the present paper treats the subject of hydrogen energy production from direct solar energy conversion facilities located on the earth's oceans and lakes. Electrolysis interface is shown to be conveniently adapted to direct solar energy conversion, depending on technical and economical feasibility aspects as they emerge from the research phases. The intrinsic requirement for relatively immense solar collection areas for large-scale central conversion facilities, with widely variable electricity charges, is given. The operation of electrolysis and photovoltaic array combination is verified at different insolation levels. Solar cell arrays and electrolysers are giving the expected results during continuously variable solar energy inputs. Future markets will turn more and more towards larger scale systems powering significantly bigger loads, ranging from hundreds of kW to several MW in size. Detailed design and close attention to subsystem engineering in the development of high performance, high efficiency photovoltaic power plants, are carried out. An overall design of a 50 MWp photovoltaic central station for electricity and hydrogen co-generation is finally discussed.     

Economic comparison of solar hydrogen generation by means of thermochemical cycles and electrolysis

Hydrogen is acclaimed to be an energy carrier of the future. Currently, it is mainly produced by fossil fuels, which release climate-changing emissions. Thermochemical cycles, represented here by the hybrid-sulfur cycle and a metal oxide based cycle, along with electrolysis of water are the most promising processes for ‘clean’ hydrogen mass production for the future. For this comparison study, both thermochemical cycles are operated by concentrated solar thermal power for multistage water splitting. The electricity required for the electrolysis is produced by a parabolic trough power plant. For each process investment, operating and hydrogen production costs were calculated on a 50 MW_th scale. The goal is to point out the potential of sustainable hydrogen production using solar energy and thermochemical cycles compared to commercial electrolysis. A sensitivity analysis was carried out for three different cost scenarios. As a result, hydrogen production costs ranging from 3.9–5.6 €/kg for the hybrid-sulfur cycle, 3.5–12.8 €/kg for the metal oxide based cycle and 2.1–6.8 €/kg for electrolysis were obtained.     

A review on solar energy-based indirect water-splitting methods for hydrogen generation

The distinguish generation methods regarding hydrogen generation using solar energy as a triggering agent are discussed in this paper, specifically indirect techniques. Two broadly classified processes are direct and indirect. The Direct processes exhibit high thermal efficiency, but their low conversion efficiency, maximum heat dissipation, and the lack of readily available heat resistive materials in abundance put the indirect processes relatively on the higher rank. The indirect methods include bio photolysis, thermochemical, photolysis, and electrolysis. There are promising features of indirect ways. Bio-photolysis provides zero pollution; the photolysis method reduces the carbon footprint in the environment; Thermochemical is meritorious in low electricity consumption due to high heat generation in the process; Electrolysis proves its worth in negligible pollution and considerable efficiency. The energy and exergy efficiency for hydrogen yielding are compared, and it is found that electrolysis has the highest energy and exergy efficiency. In terms of raw material availability, thermochemical ranks very low as compared to photolysis (abundant solar energy), bio-photolysis (a readily available bio-agent), and electrolysis (electrolytic agents to carry out the process).     

Electrolytic coloring of anodic aluminum for selective solar absorbing films: use of additives promoting color depth and rate

An optically black coating on aluminum substrate having improved solar absorption is disclosed along with an enhanced process for formation. The two-step electrolytic coloring process has been used. Porous anodic films have been formed by dc anodization of aluminum samples in 16% sulfuric acid. It is followed by black coloration via ac electrolysis in nickel sulfate solution. In this step, we have investigated the effect of chloride and magnesium as additives. Evaluation of the test samples has been carried out by spectral reflectance and nickel content measurements. Choride existance verifies two aspects: the promotion of the coloring process and higher black tones shades are attained. However, magnesium has a minor effect.     

An assessment on hydrogen production using central receiver solar systems

An assessment is presented on hydrogen production using a dedicated central receiver solar system concept coupled to two types of hydrogen producing processes, electrolysis and thermochemical. The study on solar electrolytic hydrogen was carried out using solar electricity and four different electrolytic technologies, namely industrial unipolar 1980 and 1983 technologies, industrial bipolar and solid polymer electrolyte technology. The thermochemical process was the sulphur/iodine cycle which is being developed by General Atomic Co. Systems which is capable of producing about 10⁶ GJ hydrogen per year were developed at the conceptual level and site specific computations were carried out. A general mathematical model was developed to predict the optical and thermal performance of the central receiver system coupled directly to the chemical plant. Cost models were developed for each sub-system based on the database published in the literature. Levelized and delevelized costs of solar hydrogen were then computed.     

Comparison of thermochemical,electrolytic, photoelectrolytic and photochemical solar-to-hydrogen production technologies

Hydrogen produced from solar energy is one of the most promising solar energy technologies that can significantly contribute to a sustainable energy supply in the future. This paper discusses the unique advantages of using solar energy over other forms of energy to produce hydrogen. Then it examines the latest research and development progress of various solar-to-hydrogen production technologies based on thermal, electrical, and photon energy. Comparisons are made to include water splitting methods, solar energy forms, energy efficiency, basic components needed by the processes, and engineering systems, among others. The definitions of overall solar-to-hydrogen production efficiencies and the categorization criteria for various methods are examined and discussed. The examined methods include thermochemical water splitting, water electrolysis, photoelectrochemical, and photochemical methods, among others. It is concluded that large production scales are more suitable for thermochemical cycles in order to minimize the energy losses caused by high temperature requirements or multiple chemical reactions and auxiliary processes. Water electrolysis powered by solar generated electricity is currently more mature than other technologies. The solar-to-electricity conversion efficiency is the main limitation in the improvement of the overall hydrogen production efficiency. By comparison, solar powered electrolysis, photoelectrochemical and photochemical technologies can be more advantageous for hydrogen fueling stations because fewer processes are needed, external power sources can be avoided, and extra hydrogen distribution systems can be avoided as well. The narrow wavelength ranges of photosensitive materials limit the efficiencies of solar photovoltaic panels, photoelectrodes, and photocatalysts, hence limit the solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies of solar based water electrolysis, photoelectrochemical and photochemical technologies. Extension of the working wavelength of the materials is an important future research direction to improve the solar-to-hydrogen efficiency.     

Solar power tower as heat and electricity source for a solid oxide electrolyzer: a case study

High‐temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) consists of the splitting of steam into hydrogen and oxygen at high temperature in solid oxide electrolyzers. Performing the electrolysis process at high temperatures offers the advantage of achieving higher efficiencies as compared to the conventional water electrolysis. Furthermore, this allows the direct use of process heat to generate steam. This paper is related to the FCH JU (Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking) project ADEL (ADvanced ELectrolyser For hydrogen Production with Renewable Energy Sources), which investigates different carbon‐free energy sources to be coupled to the HTSE process. Renewable energy sources are able to provide the high‐temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) process with heat and power. This paper investigates the capability of Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies to provide the HTSE process with the necessary energy demand. The layout of the plant is shown in the following figure. The design of commercial‐scale high‐temperature steam electrolysis has been carried out. The HTSE plant is coupled to an air cooled solar tower. The configuration and the operating parameters of the solar tower are based on those of the solar tower of Jülich (Germany), which is operated by DLR. This paper presents the results of process analysis performed to evaluate the hydrogen production from a HTSE plant coupled to an 80MWth air solar tower. Additionally, the dynamic behavior of the system during energy fluctuations has been analyzed. The receiver‐to‐hydrogen efficiency (based on the Higher Heating Value of hydrogen) is 26% at a hydrogen production rate of 680 kg/h in steady‐state operation. The overall solar‐to‐hydrogen efficiency is calculated to be at 18%. Moreover, the analysis under transient conditions shows that a steady‐state operation of the plant is only possible for 8 h. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Design,modelling and optimal power and hydrogen management strategy of an off grid PV system for hydrogen production using methanol electrolysis

Hydrogen used as an energy carrier and chemical element can be produced by several processes such as gasification of coal and biomass, steam reforming of fossil fuel and electrolysis of water. Each of these methods has its own advantage and disadvantage. Electrolysis process is seen as the best option for quick hydrogen production. Hydrogen generation by methanol electrolysis process (MEP) gained much attention since it guarantees high purity gas and can be compatible with renewable energies. Furthermore, due to its very low theoretical potential (0.02 V), MEP can save more than 65% of electrical energy required to produce 1 kg of hydrogen compared to water electrolysis process (WEP). Electrolytic hydrogen production using solar photovoltaic (PV) energy is positioned to become as one of the preferred options due to the harmful environmental impacts of widely used methane steam reforming process and also since the prices of PV modules are more competitive.In this paper, hydrogen production by MEP using PV energy is investigated. A design of an off grid PV/battery/MethElec system is proposed. Mathematical models of each component of the system are presented. Semi-empirical relationship between hydrogen production rate and power consumption at 80 °C and 4 M concentration is developed. Optimal power and hydrogen management strategy (PHMS) is designed to achieve high system efficiency and safe operation. Case studies are carried out on two tilts of PV array: horizontal and tilted at 36° using measured meteorological data of solar irradiation and ambient temperature of Algiers site. Simulation results reveal great opportunities of hydrogen production using MEP compared to the WEP with 22.36 g/m² d and 24.38 g/m² d of hydrogen when using system with horizontal and tilted PV array position, respectively.     

太阳能驱动的固体氧化物电解池制氢系统性能研究

采用太阳能驱动电解水制氢是实现将太阳能转换为氢能来存储的最佳方式。该文提出一种采用光伏、光热协同驱动固体氧化物电解池（SOEC）进行高温蒸汽电解的制氢系统。建立各子系统数学模型,选取北京地区夏至日气象参数,分析太阳辐照度对制氢系统的性能影响,最后对整个系统进行能量及火用分析。结果表明,电流密度和温度是影响SOEC工作的重要因素。在电流密度较大的情况下升高温度,将有利于提高电解效率。耦合太阳能后系统最大能量及火用效率分别达到19.1%和20.3%。火用分析结果表明系统最大有用功损失发生在光电转换过程,火用损比例为87%。提升光电效率,将成为提高太阳能-氢能转换效率的关键。     

Hydrogen production methods efficiency coupled to an advanced high-temperature accelerator driven system

Hydrogen, rather than oil, must be produced in volumes not provided by the currently employed methods. In this work, two high-temperature hydrogen production methods coupled with an advanced nuclear system are presented. A new design of a pebble-bed accelerator nuclear-driven system called TADSEA (Transmutation Advanced Device for Sustainable Energy Applications) was chosen because of the advantages in transmutation and safety. A detailed flowsheet of the high-temperature electrolysis process coupled to TADSEA through a Brayton gas cycle was developed using chemical process simulation software: Aspen HYSYS^®. It is obtained 0.1627 kg/s of hydrogen with the model with optimized operating conditions, resulting in an overall process efficiency of 34.51%, a value in the range of results reported by other authors. A conceptual design of a plant using the iodine-sulfur thermochemical water splitting cycle was carried out producing 5.66e-2 kg/s and electric energy in cogeneration. The overall efficiency was calculated performing an energy balance resulting in 22.56%. A brief hydrogen production cost estimation was performed for both methods obtaining 5.96$/kg for the sulfur-iodine (SI) and 4.8 $/kg for the high-temperature electrolysis (HTE) process.     

Heat transfer performance analysis of a solar flat-plate collector with an integrated metal foam porous structure filled with paraffin

The analysis of energy storage process of a solar flat-plate collector with an integrated aluminum foam porous structure filled with paraffin as the phase-change medium is reported in this paper. The momentum conservation of liquid paraffin is modeled with Darcy’s law with the Brinkman–Forchheimer’s extension, while heat transfer between the metal foams and paraffin in solid and liquid phases is modeled with a two-temperature model. It is shown that the assumption of the local thermal equilibrium between the metal foams and paraffin invoked in previous studies is inappropriate in predicting the heat transfer behavior, whereas the two-temperature model proposed in this work without this assumption can more realistically predict the real-world phase-change heat transfer process in the solar collector. In particular, the numerical results indicate that the heat transfer performance can be significantly improved by using the aluminum foams filled with paraffin.     

Hydrogen from solar energy,a clean energy carrier from a sustainable source of energy

Solar energy is going to play a crucial role in the future energy scenario of the world that conducts interests to solar-to-hydrogen as a means of achieving a clean energy carrier. Hydrogen is a sustainable energy carrier, capable of substituting fossil fuels and decreasing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission to save the world from global warming. Hydrogen production from ubiquitous sustainable solar energy and an abundantly available water is an environmentally friendly solution for globally increasing energy demands and ensures long-term energy security. Among various solar hydrogen production routes, this study concentrates on solar thermolysis, solar thermal hydrogen via electrolysis, thermochemical water splitting, fossil fuels decarbonization, and photovoltaic-based hydrogen production with special focus on the concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) system. Energy management and thermodynamic analysis of CPV-based hydrogen production as the near-term sustainable option are developed. The capability of three electrolysis systems including alkaline water electrolysis (AWE), polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis, and solid oxide electrolysis for coupling to solar systems for H₂ production is discussed. Since the cost of solar hydrogen has a very large range because of the various employed technologies, the challenges, pros and cons of the different methods, and the commercialization processes are also noticed. Among three electrolysis technologies considered for postulated solar hydrogen economy, AWE is found the most mature to integrate with the CPV system. Although substantial progresses have been made in solar hydrogen production technologies, the review indicates that these systems require further maturation to emulate the produced grid-based hydrogen.     

A hybrid power generation system: solar‐driven Rankine engine–hydrogen storage

This paper reports on the feasibility of a hybrid power generation system consisting of a solar energy‐driven Rankine engine and a hydrogen storage unit. Solar energy, the power for the hybrid system, is converted into electrical power through a combination of a solar collector, a tracking device to maintain proper orientation with the sun and a Rankine cycle engine driving an electrical power generator. Excess electricity is utilized to produce hydrogen for storage through electrolysis of water. At the solar down time, the stored hydrogen can be used to produce high‐quality steam in an aphodid burner to operate a turbine and with a field modulated generator to supplement electric power. Case studies are carried out on the optimum configuration of the hybrid system satisfying the energy demand. A numerical example based on the actual measured solar input is also included to demonstrate the design potential. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Study of hydrogen production system by using PV solar energy and PEM electrolyser in Algeria

Hydrogen fuel can be produced by using solar electric energy from photovoltaic (PV) modules for the electrolysis of water without emitting carbon dioxide or requiring fossil fuels.     

Experimental study of hydrogen production using electrolyte nanofluids with a simulated light source

In this research, we conducted water electrolysis experiments of a carbon black (CB) based sodium sulfate electrolyte using a Hoffman voltameter. The main objective was to investigate hydrogen production in such systems, as well as analyse the electrical properties and thermal properties of nanofluids. A halogen lamp, mimicking solar energy, was used as a radiation source, and a group of comparative tests were also conducted with different irradiation areas. The results showed that by using CB and light, it was possible to increase the hydrogen production rate. The optimal CB concentration was 0.1 wt %. At this concentration, the hydrogen production rate increased by 30.37% after 20 min of electrolysis. Hence, we show that using CB in electrolytes irradiated by solar energy could save the electrical energy necessary for electrolysis processes.