Continuous cooling transformation diagrams applicable to the heat-affected zone of HSLA-80 and HSLA-100 steels

Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams for HSLA-80 and HSLA-100 steels pertaining to fusion welding with heat inputs of 10 to 40 kJ/cm, and peak temperatures of 1000 °C to 1400 °C have been developed. The corresponding nonlinear cooling profiles and related γ → α phase transformation start and finish temperatures for various peak temperature conditions have been taken into account. The martensite start (M _s ) temperature for each of the grades and ambient temperature microstructures were considered for mapping the CCT diagrams. The austenite condition and cooling rate are found to influence the phase transformation temperatures, transformation kinetics, and morphology of the transformed products. In the fine-grain heat-affected zone (FGHAZ) of HSLA-80 steel, the transformation during cooling begins at temperatures of 550 °C to 560 °C, and in the HSLA-100 steel at 470 °C to 490 °C. In comparison, the transformation temperature is lower by 120 °C and 30 °C in the coarse-grain heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) of HSLA-80 steel and HSLA-100 steel, respectively. At these temperatures, acicular ferrite (AF) and lath martensite (LM) phases are formed. While the FGHAZ contains a greater proportion of acicular ferrite, the CGHAZ has a higher volume fraction of LM. Cooling profiles from the same peak temperature influence the transformation kinetics with slower cooling rates producing a higher volume fraction of acicular ferrite at the expense of LM. The CCT diagrams produced can predict the microstructure of the entire HAZ and have overcome the limitations of the conventional CCT diagrams, primarily with respect to the CGHAZ.     

高强度含铜钢奥氏体连续冷却转变产物的强韧性

研究了高强度含铜钢HSLA80和HSLA100奥氏体连续冷却转变产物的强度和韧性随冷却速率的变化规律,探讨了连续冷却过程中形成的Cu沉淀的特征和熟化规律.在Gleeble3800热模拟试验机上进行0.1℃·s^-1至20℃·s^-1的连续冷却实验,利用扫描电镜和透射电镜分析了显微组织和Cu沉淀.结果表明,随冷却速率提高,HSLA80的连续冷却转变组织由多边形铁素体向块状铁素体和贝氏体转变,在冷速0.1~1℃·s^-1范围内Cu发生沉淀,两者综合作用造成随冷却速率提高钢的硬度分阶段变化,而韧性逐渐提高;HSLA100的连续冷却转变组织以贝氏体为主,且不发生Cu的沉淀,随冷却速率提高钢的硬度基本保持不变,但韧性发生剧烈变化.连续冷却过程中形成的Cu沉淀在等温过程中的熟化符合Ostwald熟化规律,半径随时效时间t^1/3变化.     

Austenite flow stress behaviour during continuous cooling through the metastable austenite region

Studies of the austenite flow stress during cooling have revealed changes in the flow stress behaviour as the temperature decreases from the single phase austenite region into the metastable region. This suggests that the onset of metastability is associated with a change in the microstructure even though, in the metastable temperature region (i.e. between the equilibrium austenite-to-ferrite transformation temperature, Ae₃, and the non-equilibrium transformation start temperature, the Ar₃), austenite has yet to transform to ferrite. Several steel compositions with different Ae₃ temperatures were first subjected to continuous deformation by compression during cooling to follow the variations in flow stress with temperature. In these tests, the metastable region appeared to be associated with an increase in the rate of increase in flow stress with decreasing temperature. Neutron diffractometry at high temperatures was used to monitor any crystallographic changes associated with the metastable region. The results of the latter indicate a faster rate of contraction of the austenite lattice as the temperature decreases through the metastable state, compared with that observed as the temperature decreases through the stable austenite region. The possible relationship between this observation and the flow stress behaviour will be addressed in this paper.     

Phase transformation of TRIP-aided multiphase steel during continuous cooling

The phase transformation characteristics of a high-strength TRIP-aided multiphase cold-rolled steel during continuous heating at different cooling rates were studied by means of dilatometry,and the critical temperatures were also determined.The samples were fully austenitized at 1 050 ℃ and then cooled at different cooling rates ranging from0.5 ℃/s to 100 ℃/s.The continuous cooling transformation(CCT)curves were obtained for the experimental steel.The experimental results showed that a high cooling rate depressed the formation of ferrite and pearlite and promoted the formation of bainite and martensite,leading to a higher hardness.A large amount of martensite in high-strength TRIP-aided multiphase cold-rolled steel can be obtained at cooling rates in excess of 50 ℃/s.The experimental results provide guidelines for cooling control and heat treatment in real steel production.     

Effect of simulated thermal cycles on the microstructure of the heat-affected zone in HSLA-80 and HSLA-100 steel plates

The influence of weld thermal simulation on the transformation kinetics and heat-affected zone (HAZ) microstructure of two high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, HSLA-80 and HSLA-100, has been investigated. Heat inputs of 10 kJ/cm (fast cooling) and 40 kJ/cm (slow cooling) were used to generate single-pass thermal cycles with peak temperatures in the range of 750 °C to 1400 °C. The prior-austenite grain size is found to grow rapidly beyond 1100 °C in both the steels, primarily with the dissolution of niobium carbonitride (Nb(CN)) precipitates. Dilatation studies on HSLA-80 steel indicate transformation start temperatures (T _s ) of 550 °C to 560 °C while cooling from a peak temperature (T _p ) of 1000 °C. Transmission electron microscopy studies show here the presence of accicular ferrite in the HAZ. The T _s value is lowered to 470 °C and below when cooled from a peak temperature of 1200 °C and beyond, with almost complete transformation to lath martensite. In HSLA-100 steel, the T _s value for accicular ferrite is found to be 470 °C to 490 °C when cooled from a peak temperature of 1000 °C, but is lowered below 450 °C when cooled from 1200 °C and beyond, with correspondingly higher austenite grain sizes. The transformation kinetics appears to be relatively faster in the fine-grained austenite than in the coarse-grained austenite, where the niobium is in complete solid solution. A mixed microstructure consisting of accicular ferrite and lath martensite is observed for practically all HAZ treatments. The coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ) of HSLA-80 steel shows a higher volume fraction of lath martensite in the final microstructure and is harder than the CGHAZ of HSLA-100 steel.     

Effect of simulated thermal cycles on the microstructure of the heat-affected zone in HSLA-80 and HSLA-100 steel plates

The influence of weld thermal simulation on the transformation kinetics and heat-affected zone (HAZ) microstructure of two high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, HSLA-80 and HSLA-100, has been investigated. Heat inputs of 10 kJ/cm (fast cooling) and 40 kJ/cm (slow cooling) were used to generate single-pass thermal cycles with peak temperatures in the range of 750 °C to 1400 °C. The prior-austenite grain size is found to grow rapidly beyond 1100 °C in both the steels, primarily with the dissolution of niobium carbonitride (Nb(CN)) precipitates. Dilatation studies on HSLA-80 steel indicate transformation start temperatures (T _s ) of 550 °C to 560 °C while cooling from a peak temperature (T _p ) of 1000 °C. Transmission electron microscopy studies show here the presence of accicular ferrite in the HAZ. The T _s value is lowered to 470 °C and below when cooled from a peak temperature of 1200 °C and beyond, with almost complete transformation to lath martensite. In HSLA-100 steel, the T _s value for accicular ferrite is found to be 470 °C to 490 °C when cooled from a peak temperature of 1000 °C, but is lowered below 450 °C when cooled from 1200 °C and beyond, with correspondingly higher austenite grain sizes. The transformation kinetics appears to be relatively faster in the fine-grained austenite than in the coarse-grained austenite, where the niobium is in complete solid solution. A mixed microstructure consisting of accicular ferrite and lath martensite is observed for practically all HAZ treatments. The coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ) of HSLA-80 steel shows a higher volume fraction of lath martensite in the final microstructure and is harder than the CGHAZ of HSLA-100 steel.     

Effect of microstructure on hydrogen embrittlement of weld-simulated HSLA-80 and HSLA-100 steels

HSLA-80 and HSLA-100 steels have been subjected to weld-simulated grain-coarsened heat-affected zone (GCHAZ) and grain-refined heat-affected zone (GRHAZ) treatments at peak temperatures of 1350 °C and 950 °C, respectively, followed by varying cooling rates to approximate the weld heat inputs of 10 to 50 kJ/cm. Subsequent slow strain rate testing in synthetic seawater has been employed to assess the hydrogen embrittlement (HE) propensity of the materials. It is indicated that in spite of an increase in strength after weld simulation, further ductility deterioration, compared to the base material under similar testing conditions, did not occur in GCHAZ HSLA-100 steel and for low heat input condition of GRHAZ HSLA-80. This has been attributed to their HE resistant microstructures. Predominant acicular ferrite or lath martensite or a combination of both imparts resistance to HE, as observed in the case of grain-coarsened HSLA-100 and for the low heat input grain-refined HSLA-80 steels. The deleterious effect of bainitic-martensitic microstructure has been reflected in the ductility values of grain-coarsened HSLA-80, which is in agreement with the observation of higher susceptibility of the as-received HSLA-100 steel having a similar structure. However, contrary to its beneficial effect in the as-received HSLA-80, an acicular ferrite structure has shown vulnerability toward HE for high heat input grain-refined HSLA-80. This has been attributed to the presence of polygonal ferrite and to the development of an HE susceptible substructure on GRHAZ weld simulation.     

Review of accelerated cooling of steel plate

Abstract

The cooling of steel plates after the completion of rolling, while a universal requirement, was historically accomplished using "home-made" systems contrived by individual mills. In recent times, commercial solutions suitable for general application have evolved. This article reviews the development of such systems and explains the metallurgical and operational factors that dictate their design. It has a particular focus on MULPIC® technology and its uses.     

含钒X80级管线钢奥氏体晶粒长大行为

为了探明钒添加量对X80级管线钢奥氏体化过程的影响,通过Thermo-Calc热力学计算、奥氏体化加热处理、金相分析及理论模型推导计算,研究了含钒质量分数分别为0、0.042％、0.084％、0.130％的4种试验钢在不同奥氏体化温度下的晶粒尺寸变化规律并分析计算了含钒试验钢奥氏体晶粒长大动力学行为.结果 表明,当均热...     

The strengthening of an fe-v-c low-alloy steel by carbide precipitation during continuous cooling from the austenitic condition

A simple Fe-1 V-0.2C low-alloy steel has been cooled from the austenitic condition at rates between 0.1 and 500°C per min. Dilatometry, and optical and electron metallography have shown that the austenite undergoes decomposition in the range 800 to 700°C directly to ferrite containing a nonrandom distribution of vanadium carbide. The carbide precipitates are distributed in sheets, and although a range of intersheet spacings can be measured at each cooling rate, the mean intersheet spacing decreases with increasing cooling rate. The mechanical strength was also shown to increase as the cooling rate increased, but a ductile brittle transition occurred on increasing the cooling rate above approximately 20°C per min. The dispersion strengthening was found to obey an empirical relationship of the form σ_p = k • λ^-1.1, where σ_p is the dispersion strengthening effect of the carbide distribution, and λ is the intersheet spacing. The brittle behavior of the alloy obtained at high cooling rates is thought to be possibly due to the carbide morphology and dispersion resulting from the mechanism of precipitation during the austenite-ferrite transformation.     

Effect of cooling rate on the as-quenched microstructure and mechanical properties of HSLA-100 steel plates

The effect of cooling rate on the as-quenched microstructure and mechanical properties of a 14-mm-thick HSLA-100 steel using various cooling media such as brine, water, oil, air, and furnace has been studied. While quenching in brine, water, and oil resulted in lath martensite structures, the granular bainite and martensite-austenite (M-A) constituents were found in air- or furnace-cooled specimens. The average lath spacing increased slightly on decreasing the cooling rate (300 nm in brine-quenched specimen to 400 nm in oil-quenched specimen). The precipitates of Cu and Nb(C, N) were observed in all the quenching conditions except in the brine-quenched specimen. The as-quenched strength and toughness of the brine-, water-, and oil-quenched specimens were higher (yield strength: 894 to 997 MPa, ultimate tensile strength: 1119 to 1153 MPa, and Charpy V-notch energies: 65 to 70 J at −85 °C) than those of air- and furnace-cooled specimens (yield strength: 640 to 670 MPa, ultimate tensile strength: 944 to 1001 MPa, and Charpy V-notch energies: 10 to 20 J at −85 °C). For industrial production of HSLA-100 steel plates, oil or water quenching is recommended in lower thickness plates (<25 mm). For production of thicker plates, however, water quenching is more suitable.     

EBSD investigation on microstructure transformation in low carbon steel during continuous cooling

In this study the microstructure in low carbon steel during phase transformation was systematically investigated using dilatometry, optical microscopy as well as EBSD. The specimens after annealing at 900°C for 3 min were subsequently cooled at 0·3–100°C s^?1 for dilatometry, in order to determine the continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram. Then the microstructures were analysed by optical microscopy (OM) and electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD). Dilatometry, optical microscopy as well as image quality technique in EBSD were combined together to determine the continuous cooling transformation diagram of low carbon steel. As increasing in the cooling rate from 1 to 30°C s^?1, the fraction of ferrite is almost 90% and the phase transformation occurs from pearite to bainite at the cooling rate between 10 to 20°C s^?1.

Dans cette étude, on a examiné systématiquement la microstructure de l’acier à faible teneur en carbone lors de la transformation de phase en utilisant la dilatométrie, la microscopie optique ainsi que la DERD. Après un recuit à 900°C pendant 3 min, on a ensuite refroidi les échantillons entre 0·3 et 100°C s^?1 pour l’étude de dilatométrie, afin de déterminer le diagramme de transformation en refroidissement continu (CCT). On a ensuite analysé la microstructure par microscopie optique (MO) et par diffraction des électrons rétrodiffusés (DERD). On a combiné la dilatométrie, la microscopie optique ainsi que la technique de haute qualité de l’image de DERD pour déterminer le diagramme de transformation en refroidissement continu de l’acier à faible teneur en carbone. Avec l’augmentation de la vitesse de refroidissement de 1 à 30°C s^?1, la fraction de ferrite atteint presque 90% et la transformation de phase de perlite à bainite a lieu à une vitesse de refroidissement entre 10 et 20°C s^?1.     

形变对共析钢连续冷却过程中珠光体相变的影响

摘要：为掌握形变对共析钢连续冷却过程中珠光体相变的影响,研究了共析钢在720～920℃温度范围内进行形变后,在连续冷却过程中奥氏体向珠光体相变的规律,建立了相变时的过冷度和珠光体片层间距的相互关系,并预测了试验钢的力学性能。结果表明：形变储存能促进共析钢在50℃/s高冷速下发生珠光体相变,形成片层间距为129～187 nm的超细片层珠光体,抗拉强度达到近1000MPa,且随着形变温度提高,形变储存能减小,珠光体相变温度降低,珠光体片层间距减小,屈服强度和抗拉强度提高。     

Austenite grain development during reheating of microalloyed plate steels

The influence of various reheating temperatures and times on austenite grain growth and dissolution behaviour of precipitates was investigated in three different microalloyed steels. The characteristics of these steels were compared with those of a non-microalloyed steel of similar basic composition. Then, the interrelationships between precipitate distribution, precipitate dissolution and austenite grain growth were discussed.     

The use of water cooling during the continuous casting of steel and aluminum alloys

In both continuous casting of steel slabs and direct chill (DC) casting of aluminum alloy ingots, water is used to cool the mold in the initial stages of solidification, and then below the mold, where it is in direct contact with the newly solidified surface of the metal. Water cooling affects the product quality by (1) controlling the heat removal rate that creates and cools the solid shell and (2) generating thermal stresses and strains inside the solidified metal. This work reviews the current state-of-the-art in water cooling for both processes, and draws insights by comparing and contrasting the different practices used in each process. The heat extraction coefficient during secondary cooling depends greatly on the surface temperature of the ingot, as represented by boiling water-cooling curves. Thus, the heat extraction rate varies dramatically with time, as the slab/ingot surface temperature changes. Sudden fluctuations in the temperature gradients within the solidifying metal cause thermal stresses, which often lead to cracks, especially near the solidification front, where even small tensile stresses can form hot tears. Hence, a tight control of spray cooling for steel, and practices such as CO₂ injection/pulse water cooling for aluminum, are now used to avoid sudden changes in the strand surface temperature. The goal in each process is to match the rate of heat removal at the surface with the internal supply of latent and sensible heat, in order to lower the metal surface temperature monotonically, until cooling is complete.     

Modeling macro-and microstructures of Gas-Metal-Arc Welded HSLA-100 steel

Fluid flow and heat transfer during gas-metal-arc welding (GMAW) of HSLA-100 steel were studied using a transient, three-dimensional, turbulent heat transfer and fluid flow model. The temperature and velocity fields, cooling rates, and shape and size of the fusion and heat-affected zones (HAZs) were calculated. A continuous-cooling-transformation (CCT) diagram was computed to aid in the understanding of the observed weld metal microstructure. The computed results demonstrate that the dissipation of heat and momentum in the weld pool is significantly aided by turbulence, thus suggesting that previous modeling results based on laminar flow need to be re-examined. A comparison of the calculated fusion and HAZ geometries with their corresponding measured values showed good agreement. Furthermore, “finger” penetration, a unique geometric characteristic of gas-metal-arc weld pools, could be satisfactorily predicted from the model. The ability to predict these geometric variables and the agreement between the calculated and the measured cooling rates indicate the appropriateness of using a turbulence model for accurate calculations. The microstructure of the weld metal consisted mainly of acicular ferrite with small amounts of bainite. At high heat inputs, small amounts of allotriomorphic and Widmanstätten ferrite were also observed. The observed microstructures are consistent with those expected from the computed CCT diagram and the cooling rates. The results presented here demonstrate significant promise for understanding both macro-and microstructures of steel welds from the combination of the fundamental principles from both transport phenomena and phase transformation theory.     

连铸二冷模式对微合金钢板坯角部表层组织的影响

为减少和预防攀枝花钢钒有限公司P510L微合金钢连铸坯角部裂纹的发生,进行了二冷区不同冷却模式对铸坯角部表层组织及表面横裂纹的影响研究。结果表明:传统弱冷模式下,大量膜状先共析铁素体连成网状,阻碍了奥氏体基体的连续性,降低了铸坯角部的热塑性。在优化冷却模式下,在铸坯角部表层2~3 mm的组织细小、分布均匀,没有出现先共析铁素体膜,有利于控制铸坯表面横裂纹的发生。相对于传统弱冷模式,优化冷却模式可将铸坯角部表面横裂纹指数由3.2降至0.4,裂纹发生率得到了控制。