Comparison of several resuspension models against measured data

The graphite dust that will be generated in an HTR/PBMR during normal reactor operation will be deposited inside the primary system and will become radioactive due to sorption of fission products. A significant amount of radioactive dust may be resuspended and released to the environment in case of LOCA. Therefore accurate particle resuspension models are required for HTR/PBMR safety analyses. Thermal-hydraulic safety analyses of HTR/PBMR type reactors are typically performed using computer codes such as FLOWNEX, MELCOR, or SPECTRA. A resuspension model has been implemented in the past into the system code SPECTRA.The purpose of the present paper is twofold:

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Firstly, a method of implementation of a resuspension into a system code is presented.

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Secondly, two new resuspension models are introduced and the results are compared with the existing Vainshtein and Rock’n Roll resuspension models. In contrast to the existing models which are valid for turbulent flows, the new models are applicable for both laminar and turbulent flow regimes.

The following conclusions are drawn from the performed exercise:

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The implementation of resuspension model is performed in such a way that it has a general validity for both steady state and transient conditions.

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Relatively simple, quasi-static models, such as the NRG3 and NRG4 models are as useful as the more complicated dynamic models for resuspension calculation. Applicability to both laminar and turbulent flow is important for analyses of, for example, the PBMR recuperator, where the flow is largely laminar.

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The framework of resuspension modeling built into SPECTRA, due to its flexibility and large amount of user-defined coefficients, may be used to perform a quick check of the newly developed theoretical models.

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A key factor in successful resuspension predictions is a good knowledge of the adhesion force and its distribution for dust particles deposited on rough surfaces. Experimental data is needed that will allow to obtain adhesion force distribution for the materials and corresponding surfaces roughness of the components in an actual plant.

     

PBMR radionuclide source term analysis validation based on AVR operating experience

The determination of radionuclide source terms is vital for any reactor design and licensing safety evaluation. This paper provides an overview of the PBMR analysis tools with specific focus on the modelling of mobile and deposited radionuclide source terms within the pressure boundary of a typical pebble-bed high temperature reactor (HTR). The main focus is on the Dust and Activity Migration and Distribution (DAMD) software code system that models the activation, migration and time-dependent distribution of dust and atomic particles in an HTR such as the AVR and PBMR. Since DAMD provides a time-dependent systems integrated model of HTR designs, most of the obvious physical phenomena relevant to source terms are at play. These include the neutron flux, activation cross-sections, radioactive decay, dust production rates, dust impurity levels, dust filter capabilities, dust particle size distributions, thermal-hydraulic parameters influencing the migration and distribution of particles throughout the main power system and subsystems, and helium coolant leakage and make-up rates.At this stage the DAMD calibration and validation is mainly based on the operational data, experiments and measurements made during 21 years of operating life of the AVR. The comparisons of the DAMD results with various AVR measurements provide confidence in the use of DAMD for the PBMR design and safety evaluations. In addition, sensitivity analyses are performed with DAMD to determine the bounding system parameters that drive the migration and distribution of radionuclides. The use of DAMD to evaluate design configurations, e.g. the effect of the introduction and placement of filters on the radionuclide distribution, is also shown.In conclusion, the importance of a systems modelling approach for radionuclide transport and distribution within the pressure boundary of a typical HTR system, is demonstrated. Since the DAMD code system is calibrated and validated against the AVR measurements it can be concluded that the radionuclide source term phenomena in the AVR, resulting in the measured AVR contamination levels, is taken into account in the design and safety evaluation of the PBMR.     

Thermal response of a modular high temperature reactor during passive cooldown under pressurized and depressurized conditions

The concept of inherent safety features of the modular HTR design with respect to passive decay heat removal through conduction, radiation and natural convection was first introduced in the German HTR-module (pebble fuel) design and subsequently extended to other modular HTR design in recent years, e.g. PBMR (pebble fuel), GT-MHR (prismatic fuel) and the new generation reactor V/HTR (prismatic fuel).This paper presents the numerical simulations of the V/HTR using the thermal-hydraulic code THERMIX which was initially developed for the analysis of HTRs with pebble fuels, verified by experiments, subsequently adopted for applications in the HTRs with prismatic fuels and checked against the results of CRP-3 benchmark problem analyzed by various countries with diverse codes.In this paper, the thermal response of the V/HTR (operating inlet/outlet temperatures 490/1000 °C) during post shutdown passive cooling under pressurized and depressurized primary system conditions has been investigated. Additional investigations have also been carried out to determine the influence of other inlet/outlet operating temperatures (e.g. 490/850, 350/850 or 350/1000 °C) on the maximum fuel and pressure vessel temperature during depressurized cooldown condition. In addition, some sensitivity analyses have also been performed to evaluate the effect of varying the parameters, i.e. decay heat, graphite conductivity, surface emissivity, etc., on the maximum fuel and pressure vessel temperature. The results show that the nominal peak fuel temperatures remain below 1600 °C for all these cases, which is the limiting temperature relating to radioactivity release from the fuel. The analyses presented in this paper demonstrate that the code THERMIX can be successfully applied for the thermal calculation of HTRs with prismatic fuel. The results also provide some fundamental information for the design optimization of V/HTR with respect to its maximum thermal power, operating temperatures, etc.     

高温气冷堆蒸汽发生器中石墨粉尘重悬浮规律研究

高温气冷堆中石墨粉尘的运动规律对反应堆安全具有重要意义。本文采用数值模拟方法计算得到蒸汽发生器中的流场分布,在此基础上分析了蒸汽发生器中石墨粉尘重悬浮的规律。结果表明,对于粒径为0.1 μm的石墨粉尘,粉尘的重悬浮率几乎为0,对于粒径为1 μm以上的石墨粉尘,随着氦气流速的增大,蒸汽发生器中石墨粉尘的重悬浮率增大;在相同氦气流速下,随着石墨粉尘粒径的增大,石墨粉尘重悬浮率增大。     

A CFD method to evaluate the integrated influence of leakage and bypass flows on the PBMR Reactor Unit

An area that has been identified as significantly important in the development of a High Temperature Reactor (HTR) is the prediction of leakage and bypass flows through such a reactor. It is therefore essential to understand the causes of bypass flows and to determine the effect on the predicted fuel and component temperatures.This paper discusses the identification of leakage flows that are applicable to the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (Pty) Ltd. (PBMR) design and the ranking of these leakage flows. The modeling methodology and results are also discussed.Similar to previous HTR's, it was found that leakage and bypass flows are important parameters to consider for safe and efficient operation of the PBMR. Through a focused approach, it is shown that PBMR is able to improve the understanding of this phenomenon and quantify the flows and subsequent influence on the operation of the system. This has resulted in a reduction of leakage and bypass from approximately 46% to 20%. The improved understanding of leakage and bypass flows allows PBMR to address this issue during the design phase of the project, which subsequently results in a vast improvement over historical HTR designs. This gives PBMR a distinct advantage over previous High Temperature Reactors.     

The PBMR steady-state and coupled kinetics core thermal-hydraulics benchmark test problems

In support of the pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) Verification and Validation (V&V) effort, a set of benchmark test problems has been defined that focus on coupled core neutronics and thermal-hydraulic code-to-code comparisons. The motivation is not only to test the existing methods or codes available for high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs), but also to serve as a basis for the development of more accurate and efficient tools to analyse the neutronics and thermal-hydraulic behaviour for design and safety evaluations in future.The reference design for the PBMR268 benchmark problem is derived from the 268 MW PBMR design with a dynamic central column containing only graphite spheres. Several simplifications were made to the design in order to limit the need for any further approximations when defining code models. During this process, care was taken to ensure that all the important characteristics of the reactor design were preserved. The definition and initial phases of the benchmark were performed under a cooperative research project between NRG, Penn State University (PSU) and PBMR (Pty) Ltd. However, participation has been extended to include Purdue University and INL. All contributions to the benchmark effort were made in-kind by the participating members including the participation in four benchmark meetings over a period of 3 years. Based on the work performed in this benchmark the PBMR 400 MW design with fixed central reflector has been accepted as an OECD benchmark problem and work has already started.In this paper, the benchmark definition and the different test cases are described in some detail. Phase 1 focuses on steady-state conditions with the purpose of quantifying differences between code systems, models and basic data. It also serves as the basis to establish a common starting condition for the transient cases. In Phase 2, the focus is on performing coupled kinetics/core thermal-hydraulics test problems with a common cross-section and material property sets. The six events selected are described, and examples of some results are included to illustrate the behaviour of the transients. The final results of this work will be published in an NRG report and the focus will move to the OECD 400 MW benchmark problem.     

Fusion Safety Research and Development in JAERI

This paper describes the current status and future plans of the fusion safety research and development regarding to the developments of the dust removal system and safety analysis code and the thermofluid experiments in the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) for a fusion experimental reactor. The containment of the radioactive material is the key to achieve fusion safety. In the event of accidents, the source terms need to be evaluated with sufficient accuracy. Therefore, in JAERI, the dust characterization have been investigated and the dust removal system using electric force has been developed and tested. A safety analysis code including both thermal and plasma transient analyses under the various event sequences has been developed. Moreover, the preliminary experiments of thermofluid transients in the vacuum vessel such as Ingress of Coolant Event (ICE) and Loss of Vacuum Event (LOVA) have been started and the experimental results using preliminary LOVA/ICE apparatus during 1995–1996 are summarized in this paper.     

CFD simulation of particle deposition on an array of spheres using an Euler/Lagrange approach

The Generation IV Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) is being considered as a promising concept to produce electricity or process heat with high efficiencies and unique safety features. The PBMR is a high-temperature, helium-cooled, graphite moderated reactor. The fuel elements consist of 6 cm diameter spherical graphite “pebbles” containing each thousands of uranium dioxide microspheres.As the pebbles continually rub against one another in the core, a significant quantity of graphite dust can be released in the reactor coolant system. These dust particles, which contain some amounts of fission products, are transported and deposited on pebbles as well as primary circuit surfaces. It is therefore of great safety interest to develop and benchmark numerical approaches for predicting deposition of dust particles in the various locations of the PBMR primary circuit.In this investigation, we use the ANSYS-Fluent CFD code to simulate particulate flows around linear arrays of spheres and compare deposition rates against experiments. It is found that the Reynolds Stress Model (RSM) combined with the Continuous Random Walk (CRW) to supply fluctuating velocity components predicts deposition rates that are generally within the scatter of the data. The methodology developed here can therefore be used to predict to first order the graphite dust deposition rates on pebbles in PBMR-type reactors.     

10 MW高温气冷实验堆事故分析的结果与对策

1 0MW高温气冷实验堆 (HTR 1 0 )的事故分析表明 ,在设计基准事故和严重事故条件下 ,HTR 1 0的堆芯燃料元件的最高温度和反应堆冷却剂系统的压力都低于规定的安全限值 ,燃料元件和冷却剂系统压力边界都能保持其完整性 ,不会造成裂变产物大量向外释放。根据事故分析结果并参照国外高温气冷堆安全运行的管理实践经验 ,针对HTR 1 0所提出的一系列事故对策有效地保证了HTR 1 0在较高的安全水平上进行设计、建造、运行及管理等 ,能够确保HTR 1 0、人员、社会以及环境的安全     

高温气冷堆用石墨材料的腐蚀实验与软件模拟

在高温气冷堆进水进空气事故下,空气和水蒸气会与堆内的石墨材料发生化学腐蚀反应,从而可能影响反应堆的安全。为研究高温气冷堆内石墨材料的氧化腐蚀特性,本文利用气相色谱法实验测量了IG-110石墨在不同温度和不同气体组分配比情况下的腐蚀速率及腐蚀产物,并利用THERMIX/REACT软件对整个石墨腐蚀过程进行了模拟。研究结果表明：反应温度对石墨腐蚀的影响最为显著,腐蚀速率随着温度的升高而增大,同时随着温度升高,CO与CO₂的含量比也逐渐增大。通过与实验结果对比分析,验证了THERMIX/REACT软件用于高温气冷堆安全分析的可靠性。     

The Thermal-Hydraulic model for the pebble bed modular reactor (PBMR) plant operator training simulator system

This paper provides a discussion of the model development status and verification efforts for the Reactor Core Thermal-Hydraulic model developed for the full-scope plant Operator Training Simulator System of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). Due to the First of a Kind Engineering nature and lack of reference plant data, model verification has mainly been focused on benchmarking the model configurations against test cases performed by PBMR design analysis codes, i.e. TINTE, VSOP and FLOWNEX.As a first step, due to the symmetrical physical nature of the PBMR core, a two-dimensional (2D) model configuration in radial and axial directions (axial-symmetry) was developed. The design was subsequently extended to a three-dimensional (3D) configuration. Through the use of cross-flow and cross-conduction links, three nearly identical 2D configurations were glued together to form this 3D model configuration. To date, the 3D configuration represents the most comprehensive model to simulate the PBMR core thermo-hydraulics. This paper concludes with the verification of thermodynamic and heat-transfer properties of two steady state (100% and 40% power) conditions between the 3D Reactor Core Thermal-Hydraulic model and the available FLOWNEX and TINTE design code analysis. The transient operations between these two power levels are also discussed.     

Numerical Study of Radiation Emission from the Argon Plasma Focus

Ion populations and emitted spectrum of argon plasma have been calculated using the POPULATE and SPECTRA codes of the RATION suite at different conditions (electron temperatures, electron densities, ion densities, plasma size) for LTE and NLTE models. Expected argon plasma spectra at certain electron temperature range have been plotted. The suitable electron temperatures ranges for argon plasma soft X-ray (3–4 keV) emission and EUV (60–200 eV) emission have been investigated. POPULATE and SPECTRA codes have been presented as a good assisted tools for plasma focus diagnostics.     

Modular HTR confinement/containment and the protection against aircraft crash

Does an HTR need a containment – pressure resistant – or is it possible – licensable – to have only a so-called confinement.The answer depends on both the results of the safety analysis of the accidents considered in the design and the acceptance by the licensing authorities and the public of a safety approach only based on severe core damage exclusion.The safety approach to be developed for modular HTRs must describe the application of the defence in depth principle for such reactors. Whatever the requirements on the last confinement barrier could be, a convincing demonstration of the exclusion of any severe core damage is needed, relying on exhaustive and bounding considerations of severe core damage initiators and the use of non-questionable arguments.The paper presents the containment issues for HTRs based on German experience background and considerations for modern modular HTR safety approach including beyond design situations.

• For the German HTRs (designed in the 80s), it could be shown in the licensing procedures in Germany that there was no need for a pressure retaining and gas tight containment to enclose radioactive nuclides released from the nuclear heat source. Instead, the confinement envelope acted in conjunction with other barriers to minimize the release of radioactive nuclides and the radiological impact on the environment.

• The confinement envelope consisted of the reactor building, a sub-atmospheric pressure system, a building pressure relief system, an HVAC systems isolation and a filtration system.

• During a major depressurization accident, unfiltered releases were discharged to the environment. The analyses results show that the environmental impact was far below the dose limits according to the German Radiological Protection Ordinance, even when the effect of filters was not taken into account.

• The demonstration strongly relied on the assumptions made for the source term definition, e.g. the fuel particles failure rates (under irradiation and during accidental conditions), the diffusion data, the dust data and the deposition/lift-off mechanisms.

• For modern modular HTRs, the last confinement barrier performances will have to be determined in accordance with the set of accidents to be considered in the design including internal and external hazards and the limits targeted for the public and the environment protection.

Further more the paper presents an analysis of effects of a deliberate crash of a large commercial airliner on a former German HTR design.     

Development and testing of analytical models for the pebble bed type HTRs

The pebble bed type gas cooled high temperature reactor (HTR) appears to be a good candidate for the next generation nuclear reactor technology. These reactors have unique characteristics in terms of the randomness in geometry, and require special techniques to analyze their systems. This study includes activities concerning the testing of computational tools and the qualification of models. Indeed, it is essential that the validated analytical tools be available to the research community. From this viewpoint codes like MCNP, ORIGEN and RELAP5, which have been used in nuclear industry for many years, are selected to identify and develop new capabilities needed to support HTR analysis. The geometrical model of the full reactor is obtained by using lattice and universe facilities provided by MCNP. The coupled MCNP-ORIGEN code is used to estimate the burnup and the refuelling scheme. Results obtained from Monte Carlo analysis are interfaced with RELAP5 to analyze the thermal hydraulics and safety characteristics of the reactor. New models and methodologies are developed for several past and present experimental and prototypical facilities that were based on HTR pebble bed concepts. The calculated results are compared with available experimental data and theoretical evaluations showing very good agreement. The ultimate goal of the validation of the computer codes for pebble bed HTR applications is to acquire and reinforce the capability of these general purpose computer codes for performing HTR core design and optimization studies.     

Basic risk analyses for high-temperature reactors

The methodology of PSA/PRA is available for the HTR and has already been applied to various plant concepts. The results are predictive and generic in nature; the analyses have to struggle with less detailed technical information (paper design instead of real operated plants) and little experience from plant practice. The overall degree of uncertainty is similar to studies for LWRs mainly because operating experience can be transferred to some extent and the physical phenomena are much easier to describe. Therefore, the topology of design and beyond-design accidents has been established.For medium-sized HTRs (e.g. HTR-500) of current design failure of active systems for decay heat removal, resulting in core heatup, clearly dominates the risk and leads to the largest releases of radioactive nuclides into the environment. For small-sized HTRs (e.g. HTR-Module) temperature-induced releases from the fuel are insignificantly low for all types of accident; plate-out activities on the steam generator surfaces remobilized in the course of water ingress accidents can be regarded as the main contribution to the comparatively small source term.The largest releases are so low for all HTR concepts that early health effects can be ruled out in any case, including no evacuation. For small HTR plants even late cancer effects need practically not to be expected.A comparison with licensed released values has shown that the applicable current requirements are met by all HTR concepts examined. However, small HTRs especially offer an additional potential for compliance with more stringent safety requirements, “taking the fear out of hypothetical accidents”, by limiting maximum releases. Incidentally, the classically defined “risk” to the population from both plants is generally very low.     

高温气冷堆地震丧失厂外电的风险评价

地震导致丧失厂外电是核电厂地震情况下的典型始发事件。本研究使用地震概率安全分析方法,以高温气冷堆为研究对象,得到其在地震丧失厂外电事故下的风险水平。研究范围包括分析地震导致丧失厂外电的事故发展情景分析,筛选地震设备清单并结合现场巡访进行调整,建立地震导致丧失厂外电的风险评价模型,并对超过高温气冷堆风险接受准则剂量（概率安全目标）的放射性释放的频率结果进行了间隔分析、割集分析和重要度分析。本文工作可为高温气冷堆的地震概率安全分析在方法实施、建模假设、过程分析等方面提供有益的参考。     

Optimization of a pebble bed configuration for quasi-direct numerical simulation

A high temperature reactor (HTR) is envisaged to be one of the renewed reactor designs to play a role in nuclear power generation including process heat applications. The HTR design concept exhibits excellent safety features due to the low power density and the large amount of graphite present in the core which gives a large thermal inertia in the event of an accident such as loss of coolant. However, the possible appearance of hot spots in the pebble bed cores of HTR may affect the integrity of the pebbles. This has drawn the attention of several scientists to understand this highly three-dimensional complex phenomenon. A good prediction of the flow and heat transport in such a pebble bed core is a challenge for CFD based on the available turbulence models and computational power. Such models need to be validated in order to gain trust in the simulation of these types of flow configurations. Direct numerical simulation (DNS), while imposing some restrictions in terms of flow parameters and numerical tools corresponding to the available computational resources, can serve as a reference for model development and validation. In the present article, a wide range of numerical simulations has been performed in order to optimize a pebble bed configuration for quasi-DNS which may serve as reference for validation.     

Design Assessment for Transport and Storage Casks

Abstract

The design assessment concerning the mechanical behaviour of transport and storage casks for radioactive material to fulfil nuclear safety criteria has to be based on two essential considerations: (1) Effective analysis of the stress–strain state of the cask components under both normal operational and test conditions including hypothetical accident scenarios with suitable accepted methods. (2) Economic estimation of the required properties and the structural state of the cask components with sufficient exactness. In an overview of the codes which are available at GNS/GNB for cask impact strength analyses (ANSYS, ADINA, VDI Codes), procedures and aspects of benchmarking and validation of calculation codes are described. The results of experimental full size cask drop test programs (CASTOR, POLLUX) and corresponding pre-test calculational analyses show the suitability of the codes used. The influence of dynamic effects on the mechanical properties of material (ductile cast iron, wood) has been investigated experimentally. By consideration of these dynamic values in strength analyses of casks at impact a good agreement between experimental and calculational results has been achieved.