Do indoor pollutants and thermal conditions in schools influence student performance? A critical review of the literature

To assess whether school environments can adversely affect academic performance, we review scientific evidence relating indoor pollutants and thermal conditions, in schools or other indoor environments, to human performance or attendance. We critically review evidence for direct associations between these aspects of indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and performance or attendance. Secondarily, we summarize, without critique, evidence on indirect connections potentially linking IEQ to performance or attendance. Regarding direct associations, little strongly designed research was available. Persuasive evidence links higher indoor concentrations of NO(2) to reduced school attendance, and suggestive evidence links low ventilation rates to reduced performance. Regarding indirect associations, many studies link indoor dampness and microbiologic pollutants (primarily in homes) to asthma exacerbations and respiratory infections, which in turn have been related to reduced performance and attendance. Also, much evidence links poor IEQ (e.g. low ventilation rate, excess moisture, or formaldehyde) with adverse health effects in children and adults and documents dampness problems and inadequate ventilation as common in schools. Overall, evidence suggests that poor IEQ in schools is common and adversely influences the performance and attendance of students, primarily through health effects from indoor pollutants. Evidence is available to justify (i) immediate actions to assess and improve IEQ in schools and (ii) focused research to guide IEQ improvements in schools. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: There is more justification now for improving IEQ in schools to reduce health risks to students than to reduce performance or attendance risks. However, as IEQ-performance links are likely to operate largely through effects of IEQ on health, IEQ improvements that benefit the health of students are likely to have performance and attendance benefits as well. Immediate actions are warranted in schools to prevent dampness problems, inadequate ventilation, and excess indoor exposures to substances such as NO(2) and formaldehyde. Also, siting of new schools in areas with lower outdoor pollutant levels is preferable.     

A multivariate-logistic model for acceptance of indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in offices

The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in offices is examined from the prospect of an occupant's acceptance in four aspects: thermal comfort, indoor air quality, noise level and illumination level. Based on the evaluations made by 293 occupants of the IEQ of offices in Hong Kong, empirical expressions have been proposed to approximate an overall IEQ acceptance of an office environment at certain operative temperature (T_o), carbon dioxide concentration (CO₂), equivalent noise level (L_eq) and illumination level (lux). The overall IEQ acceptance is calculated from a multivariate logistic regression model. A range of acceptance in typical office environmental conditions and its dependence on the four parameters stated above are determined for design conditions. The proposed overall IEQ acceptance can be used as a quantitative assessment criterion for an office environment and similar environment where an occupant's evaluation is expected.     

An evaluation model for indoor environmental quality (IEQ) acceptance in residential buildings

The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in residential buildings is examined from the prospect of an occupant's acceptance in four aspects: thermal comfort, indoor air quality, noise level and illumination level. Based on the evaluations by 125 occupants living in 32 typical residential apartments in Hong Kong, this study proposes empirical expressions to approximate the overall IEQ acceptance with respect to four contributors, namely operative temperature, carbon dioxide concentration, equivalent noise level and illumination level, via a multivariate logistic regression model. A range of IEQ acceptances for regular residential conditions is determined and the dependence of the predicted overall IEQ acceptance on the variations of the contributors is discussed. The proposed overall IEQ acceptance can be used as a quantitative assessment criterion for similar residential environments where an occupant's evaluation is expected.     

Indoor environmental quality in Hellenic hospital operating rooms

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in hospital operating rooms (ORs) constitutes a major challenge for the proper design and operation of an energy efficient hospital. A subjective assessment of the indoor environment along with a short monitoring campaign was performed during the audits of 18 ORs at nine major Hellenic hospitals. A total of 557 medical personnel participated in an occupational survey, providing data for a subjective assessment of IEQ in the audited ORs. The OR personnel reported work related health symptoms and an assessment of indoor conditions (thermal, visual and acoustical comfort, and air quality). Overall, personnel reported an average of 2.24 work-related symptoms each, and 67.2% of respondents reported at least one. Women suffer more health symptoms than men. Special dispositions, such as smoking and allergies, increase the number of reported symptoms for male and female personnel. Personnel that perceive satisfactory indoor comfort conditions (temperature, humidity, ventilation, light, and noise) average 1.18 symptoms per person, while for satisfactory indoor air quality the average complaints are 0.99. The perception of satisfactory IEQ (satisfactory comfort conditions and air quality) reduces the average number of health complaints to 0.64 symptoms per person and improves working conditions, even in a demanding OR environment.     

Categories of indoor environmental quality and building energy demand for heating and cooling

Maintaining suitable indoor climate conditions is a need for the occupants’ well being, while requiring very strictly thermal comfort conditions and very high levels of indoor air quality in buildings represents also a high expense of energy, with its consequence in terms of environmental impact and cost. In fact, it is well known that the indoor environmental quality (IEQ), considering both thermal and indoor air quality aspects, has a primary impact not only on the perceived human comfort, but also on the building energy consumption. This issue is clearly expressed by the European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 2002/92/EC, together with the most recent 2010/31/EU, which underlines that the expression of a judgment about the energy consumption of a building should be always joint with the corresponding indoor environmental quality level required by occupants. To this aim, the concept of indoor environment categories has been introduced in the EN 15251 standard. These categories range from I to III, where category I refers to the highest level of indoor climate requirement. In the challenge of reducing the environmental impact for air conditioning in buildings, it is essential that IEQ requirements are relaxed in order to widen the variations of the temperature ranges and ventilation air flow rates. In this paper, by means of building energy simulation, the heating and cooling energy demand are calculated for a mechanically controlled office building where different indoor environmental quality levels are required, ranging from category I to category III of EN 15251. The building is located in different European cities (Moscow, Torino and Athens), characterized by significantly different wheatear conditions. The mutual relation between heating and cooling energy demand and the required levels of IEQ is highlighted. The simulations are performed on a typical office room which is adopted as a reference in validation tests of the European Standard EN 15265 to validate calculation procedures of energy use for space heating and cooling.     

Indoor environmental quality,occupant satisfaction,and acute building‐related health symptoms in Green Mark‐certified compared with non‐certified office buildings

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) has become an important component of green building certification schemes. While green buildings are expected to provide enhanced IEQ, higher occupant satisfaction, and less risks of occupant health when compared with non‐green buildings, the literature suggests inconsistent evidence due to diverse research design, small sample size, and weak statistical analysis. This study compared several outcomes pertinent to IEQ performance in green and non‐green office buildings in Singapore. Adopting a cross‐sectional study design, objective measurements were taken in eight green and six non‐green buildings, and satisfaction and acute health symptom risks of 367 occupants were obtained. Green buildings exhibited lower concentration of PM2.5, bacteria, and fungi and maintained temperature and humidity more consistently compared to non‐green counterparts. The mean ratings for satisfaction with temperature, humidity, lighting level, air quality, and indoor environment were higher in green buildings (with statistical significance P < 0.05). There was statistically significant reduction in risk of occupants having headache, unusual fatigue, and irritated skin in green buildings. Although matching of buildings and occupant characteristics, survey participation bias, and sampling duration (a 1‐week snapshot) of IEQ monitoring remain as limitations, this study offered positive association of green buildings with qualitatively and quantitatively measured performance of IEQ.     

Automated classification of indoor environmental quality control using stacked ensembles based on electroencephalograms

This study aims to develop an automated classification of indoor air quality control using the machine learning based on an electroencephalogram (EEG) signal. Two experiments were conducted: The first aimed to select an EEG channel based on the brain wave indices when the indoor environmental quality (IEQ) changes. We then extract the brain wave indices’ feature when the subjects conduct adaptive behaviors and predict the IEQ condition control using machine learning including the stacked ensembles. The extracted features were classified using base estimators such as distributed random forest, gradient boosting machine (GBM), generalized linear models (GLMs), deep neural network, and new predicted data were retrained and predicted by metalearner (i.e., GLM). In Dimension 1, the air conditioning system and the air ventilation system, and the area under curve (AUC) of the proposed stacked ensembles trained by base estimators was the highest, 0.9038. In Dimension 2, turning on and turning off, the AUC of the GBM is the highest, 0.8384. Based on these results, the EEG signal can be used to suggest an automatic IEQ control model that can then reduce the drowsiness, and increase attention.     

Indoor environment quality contracts in building projects

The scientific literature is replete with examples that indicate that poor indoor conditions at workplaces reduce work performance and increase short-term sick leave. To address good indoor environment quality (IEQ), strategic and practical design decisions are needed in the early phase of the building process to ensure successful implementation. However, current procurement practices are hampered by fragmentation, long subcontract chains and vague performance requirements. A preliminary study is undertaken that focuses on developing a method of contracting that enables the attainment and verification of the desired IEQ. Using a review of international research and practices, existing commissioning methods and contract procedures are identified for their attention to IEQ. A contract procedure is proposed that fosters agreement on indoor environment between building owners and tenants, and which directs a building project to give users the guarantee of indoor condition. To make a pre-lease contract agreement that includes IEQ, the factors having an influence on the IEQ chain must be included in all building contracts such as those of design, purchase, and operation and maintenance. Thus, the requirements of IEQ require their incorporation into every phase of the building project. The main elements in these contracts, in addition to the requirements of IEQ, are those verifying quality, bonuses and sanctions.

La littérature scientifique est riche en exemples qui montrent que la médiocrité des conditions intérieures sur le lieu de travail réduit les performances opérationnelles et augmente les absences de courte durée pour raisons de santé. Pour obtenir un environnement intérieur de bonne qualité (IEQ), il faut, dès le début du processus de construction, prendre des décisions d'ordre stratégique et pratique en vue d'une mise en ?uvre réussie. Or, la fragmentation, les longues chaînes de contrats de sous-traitance et le manque de précision des impératifs de performance sont autant d'obstacles aux pratiques d'approvisionnement actuelles. Une étude préliminaire est entreprise qui porte, pour l'essentiel, sur le développement d'un mode de réalisation permettant de satisfaire et de vérifier la qualité de l'environnement intérieur recherchée. S'appuyant sur une analyse des pratiques et de la recherche au niveau international, l'auteur recense les méthodes de mise en service et les procédures contractuelles existantes en fonction de l'intérêt porté à l'IEQ. Il est proposé une procédure contractuelle qui encourage les accords en matière d'environnement intérieur entre propriétaires de bâtiments et occupants et qui prescrit un projet de construction offrant aux utilisateurs la garantie d'un environnement intérieur satisfaisant. Pour conclure une convention contractuelle, préalablement au bail de location, qui prévoit l'IEQ, il faut inclure les facteurs ayant une influence sur la chaîne IEQ dans tous les contrats de bâtiments, comme la conception, l'approvisionnement, l'exploitation et la maintenance. Les exigences en matière d'IEQ nécessitent donc qu'elles soient intégrées à toutes les phases d'un projet de bâtiment. Les principaux éléments dans ces contrats, outre les exigences d'IEQ, sont ceux qui vérifient la qualité, les primes et les sanctions.     

Assessment of wellbeing in an indoor office environment

Relationships between indoor building conditions and wellbeing of occupants are complex; many indoor stressors can exert their effects additively or through complex interactions. It has been shown that exposure to these stressors can cause both short-term and long-term effects. Relevant relations between measurements of chemical and physical indoor environmental parameters and effects have been difficult to make. To increase the chance on successful assessment of cause-effect relationships in future indoor environmental quality (IEQ) investigations, there seems to be a need to improve procedures applied to gather the relevant information. From different fields of expertise knowledge was retrieved on how and why people respond to external stressors, which factors, parameters or indicators can be used to explain these responses and how to assess those. No consensus exists on which physical, physiological, psychological or social indicators should be applied to explain these responses. However, several existing techniques are available and promising innovative techniques are being developed, of which the applicability needs to be explored. The review results in a better overview of which factors are important to consider in future studies.     

Energy performance and indoor environmental quality in Hellenic schools

School buildings constitute a major part of the non-residential building stock, though due to their operational characteristics, they represent a low percentage of the overall energy balance of the building sector. Although health and productivity of pupils and teachers is strongly affected by the indoor environmental quality of their school, poor indoor air quality has been reported in published literature, even so for recently constructed school buildings. The same applies for the energy consumption, with large amounts of energy being wasted because no energy saving measures are applied for the operation of schools. This paper presents the outcome of a study on the energy performance of Hellenic school buildings. The general features of the contemporary building stock are presented along with the results from an energy survey in 135 Hellenic schools. The derived energy consumption benchmarks are compared with published literature. Finally, the energy performance and indoor environmental quality of a representative sample of schools in metropolitan Athens are assessed in a holistic approach to the “energy efficiency – thermal comfort – indoor air quality” dilemma. The IEQ assessment was based on an objective evaluation by monitoring crucial indoor conditions and a subjective occupant evaluation using standardized questionnaires. The potential of several energy conservation measures is evaluated in terms of energy savings and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions along with the related payback periods.     

Associations between classroom CO2 concentrations and student attendance in Washington and Idaho

Student attendance in American public schools is a critical factor in securing limited operational funding. Student and teacher attendance influence academic performance. Limited data exist on indoor air and environmental quality (IEQ) in schools, and how IEQ affects attendance, health, or performance. This study explored the association of student absence with measures of indoor minus outdoor carbon dioxide concentration (dCO(2)). Absence and dCO(2) data were collected from 409 traditional and 25 portable classrooms from 22 schools located in six school districts in the states of Washington and Idaho. Study classrooms had individual heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, except two classrooms without mechanical ventilation. Classroom attributes, student attendance and school-level ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status (SES) were included in multivariate modeling. Forty-five percent of classrooms studied had short-term indoor CO(2) concentrations above 1000 p.p.m. A 1000 p.p.m. increase in dCO(2) was associated (P < 0.05) with a 0.5-0.9% decrease in annual average daily attendance (ADA), corresponding to a relative 10-20% increase in student absence. Annual ADA was 2% higher (P < 0.0001) in traditional than in portable classrooms. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: This study provides motivation for larger school studies to investigate associations of student attendance, and occupant health and student performance, with longer term indoor minus outdoor CO(2) concentrations and more accurately measured ventilation rates. If our findings are confirmed, improving classroom ventilation should be considered a practical means of reducing student absence. Adequate or enhanced ventilation may be achieved, for example, with educational training programs for teachers and facilities staff on ventilation system operation and maintenance. Also, technological interventions such as improved automated control systems could provide continuous ventilation during occupied times, regardless of occupant thermal comfort demands.     

BOSSA: a multidimensional post-occupancy evaluation tool

Research findings point to three methodological shortcomings of current post-occupancy evaluation (POE) tools: (1) contextualizing results, (2) adding instrumental data side by side to survey results and (3) producing meaningful feedback to its key stakeholders. This paper introduces the holistic BOSSA (Building Occupants Survey System Australia) and tools developed under this project's scope in close collaboration with industry. It aims to present and discuss the statistical analysis used in the BOSSA tool, distilling the survey results down to nine indoor environmental quality (IEQ) dimensions and their association with four overall indices. Principal component analysis (PCA) extracted nine IEQ dimensions that were uncorrelated with each other: spatial comfort, indoor air quality, personal control, noise distraction and privacy, connection to the outdoor environment, building image and maintenance, individual space, thermal comfort, and visual comfort. Four separate multiple regression analyses were conducted, one for each global evaluation item as an independent variable: work area comfort, building satisfaction, productivity and health. This statistical analysis provided the rational basis of BOSSA's scoring system, designed to simplify how occupant survey results are communicated to key stakeholders from the property industry and researchers.     

影响生产率的要素--室内环境品质

指出了影响室内人员生产率的各个因素,着重从室内空气品质、通风率、相对湿度、温度的角度分析了其中环境因素的作用,解决了室内环境因素的概念。认为改善室内环境品质可以提高生产率和健康水平,但亦可能有消极的作用。     

教学生命周期视角下课程质量生态环境构建

按照课程启动、质量计划、质量保证、质量控制、课程结束的教学生命周期,建立教学共同体责任矩阵,构建课程质量生态环境,对课程质量施以保证服务。课程启动沿用迈阿密大学课程教学过程规划模式,说明和定义课程的需求,将布卢姆教育目标分类法运用于识别课程目标,围绕教学目标开展教学活动和学习过程评价,提供课程质量计划,采用价值链分析法了解教学行为的“增值”和“贬值”,评估教学行为对教学价值的贡献。在课程质量控制阶段,制定多元化评价模式和实践策略,通过“促进学习的评价”和“做为学习的评价”两种形成性评价关注学生的学习过程。在课程结束时,通过师师反馈、师生反馈及第三方反馈进行课程质量改进。将学习投入作为衡量课程质量的重要因素,数据分析表明,学生在课程满意度和学习绩效等方面具有较高认同度。     

建筑设计教师的学术素质及其发展策略

一个建筑设计教师的日常工作离不开教学、研究和设计这三个基本领域。近年来 ,学术研究对教师的表现评估占据愈来愈重要的比重 ,从而改变了我们对设计教师素质的固有观念。我们应该如何去理解和应对建筑教育的新形势 ?本文就学问的定义、设计教师培养其学术素质的多种途径、尤其是在设计文化和教学文化中如何培育学术氛围等问题阐述了个人的见解     

智能建筑的室内生态环境

从智能建筑和室内生态环境的概念出发,论 保证智能建筑室内环境品质的基本原则,介绍了选用节能窗,建筑外阳板等被动式和采用置换通风,冷辐射吊顶等主动式方法,在智能建筑内创造良好的生态环境,保证室内环境吕质的途径,提出对建筑自动化系统中环境品质控制的建议。     

生态建筑节能系统研究

AEP（空气-能量-植物）生态建筑节能系统的特点在于获得节能目标的同时得到高品质的室内空气质量IAQ和室内环境质量IEQ,减少PM2.5,为建筑节能和提高室内空气质量提供一个低成本的生态节能工程解决方案,在建筑电气与其他学科应用层面的结合上迈出了跨越性的一步。介绍AEP生态建筑节能系统的概念;AEP系统与室内空气质量、室内环境质量、植物绿量的关系;生态建筑节能系统的应用实例。     

A preliminary study on the association between ventilation rates in classrooms and student performance

Poor conditions leading to substandard indoor air quality (IAQ) in classrooms have been frequently cited in the literature over the past two decades. However, there is limited data linking poor IAQ in the classrooms to student performance. Whereas, it is assumed that poor IAQ results in reduced attendance and learning potential, and subsequent poor student performance, validating this hypothesis presents a challenge in today's school environment. This study explores the association between student performance on standardized aptitude tests that are administered to students on a yearly basis, to classroom carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations, which provide a surrogate of ventilation being provided to each room. Data on classroom CO2 concentrations (over a 4-5 h time span within a typical school day) were recorded in fifth grade classrooms in 54 elementary schools within a school district in the USA. Results from this preliminary study yield a significant (P < 0.10) association between classroom-level ventilation rate and test results in math. They also indicate that non-linear effects may need to be considered for better representation of the association. A larger sample size is required in order to draw more definitive conclusions. Practical Implications Future studies could focus on (1) gathering more evidence on the possible association between classroom ventilation rates and students' academic performance; (2) the linear/non-linear nature of the association; and (3) whether it is possible to detect 'no observed adverse effect level' for adequate ventilation with respect to academic performance in schools. All of this information could be used to improve guidance and take regulatory actions to ensure adequate ventilation in schools. The high prevalence of low ventilation rates, combined with the growing evidence of the positive impact that sufficient ventilation has on human performance, suggests an opportunity for improving design and management of school facilities.     

Associations of perceived indoor environmental quality with stress in the workplace

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is a general indicator of the quality of conditions inside a building. We investigated associations of perceived IEQ including air quality, thermal comfort, noise, and light quality with stress at work and the extent to which workplace location modifies these associations. We recruited 464 full-time workers from four companies in Singapore. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, lifestyle/health-related factors, and workplace factors were collected through self-administered questionnaires. Perceived IEQ satisfaction scores of all four factors were collected using the validated OFFICAIR questionnaire. We fitted a logistic regression model to assess associations between each perceived IEQ score and stress at work, adjusting for potential confounders. The odds ratio for stress at work associated with a 1-unit increase in perceived air quality score was 0.88 (0.82-0.94), 0.89 (0.82-0.97) for thermal comfort, 0.93 (0.87-0.98) for noise, and 0.88 (0.82-0.94) for light quality. Significant associations were found in office and control rooms for all four perceived IEQ, except for thermal comfort in office rooms. Higher satisfaction levels of perceived air quality, thermal comfort, noise, and lighting, were significantly associated with a reduction in stress at work. Our findings could potentially provide a useful tool for environmental health impact assessment for buildings.     

建筑节能性能对室内环境影响评估

室内环境质量是影响建筑舒适度的重要因素.建筑节能性能对室内环境的影响极少被关注.借助计算机建造模型及计算数据,对3种不同节能性能的建筑进行室内环境比较分析,包括对室内空气温度、空气交换速度及室内光线质量比较分析.研究表明：建筑节能性能不仅影响到建筑的能耗,而且对室内环境也会产生影响,但节能性能的优劣并不与室内环境成正比,节能性能好的建筑其室内环境质量并不绝对优于节能性能差的建筑;对同一建筑,可持续能源的使用在短期内只会对室内环境质量产生微小的影响.