Virtual reality in problem-based learning contexts: Effects on the problem-solving performance,vocabulary acquisition and motivation of English language learners

Learning a foreign language requires interaction with language input while involved in a task. Given that problem-based learning (PBL) offers hands-on application in realistic contexts, and that virtual reality (VR) enables learners to interact with multiple modalities of information, this study examines how the integration of VR technology into PBL contexts affects students' motivation for, problem-solving during, and vocabulary acquisition in learning English as a foreign language (EFL). A total of 84 engineering majors who enrolled in a course of English for specific purposes were randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group. Students in the experimental group participated in a VR-assisted PBL context, in which they were to view a PBL scenario using VR technology and then to create VR videos about solving the given problems. Those in the control group participated in a PBL context without the use of VR technology for viewing and solving the identical scenario. After the intervention, all the students wrote a problem-solving analysis, took a vocabulary knowledge test, completed a learning motivation questionnaire, and participated in individual interviews. The results showed that the students in the experimental group significantly outperformed those in the control group in terms of vocabulary acquisition, and were more motivated to learn English related to their future careers, whereas there was no significant difference in the problem-solving performance of the two groups. Implications of these findings highlight the value of engaging EFL learners in immersive environments for contextualized learning through the integrated use of VR and PBL.     

虚拟现实技术在城市建设中的应用

文章以虚拟现实 ( VR)系统为核心 ,综合利用全数字摄影测量系统、地理信息系统 ( GIS)和网络技术等 ,研究快速建立虚拟城市的技术和方法。通过这个方法 ,将虚拟现实作为一个开放系统和一门实用技术 ,为城市信息化提供一种可交互操作、集成化和人机和谐的方法     

Cognitive and affective processes for learning science in immersive virtual reality

As immersive virtual reality (IVR) systems proliferate in classrooms, it is important to understand how they affect learning outcomes and the underlying affective and cognitive processes that may cause these outcomes. Proponents argue that IVR could improve learning by increasing positive affective and cognitive processing, thereby supporting improved performance on tests of learning outcome, whereas opponents of IVR contend that it could hurt learning by increasing distraction, thereby disrupting cognitive learning processes and leading to poorer learning outcomes. In a media comparison study, students viewed a biology lesson either as an interactive animated journey in IVR or as a slideshow on a desktop monitor. Those who viewed the IVR lesson performed significantly worse on transfer tests, reported higher emotional arousal, reported more extraneous cognitive load and showed less engagement based on EEG measures than those who viewed the slideshow lesson, with or without practice questions added to the lessons. Mediational analyses showed that the lower retention scores for the IVR lesson were related to an increase in self-reported extraneous cognitive load and emotional arousal. These results support the notion that immersive environments create high affective and cognitive distraction, which leads to poorer learning outcomes than desktop environments.     

Language learning with interactive virtual agent scenarios and speech recognition: Lessons learned

The SPELL (Spoken Electronic Language Learning) system is a self‐access computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) package that integrates speaker‐independent continuous speech recognition technology with virtual worlds and embodied virtual agents to create an environment in which learners can converse in the target language within meaningful contextualized scenarios. In this paper we provide an overview of the functionality, architecture, and implementation of the SPELL system. We also describe four phases of usability evaluation conducted with the system and summarize the main results of these user assessments. Finally, we discuss the most significant lessons learned in the development and evaluation of the system. The paper focuses on the technological aspects of the system and its evaluation for usability and robustness, rather than its pedagogical methodology. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of the modality principle to support learning with virtual reality: An eye-tracking and electrodermal activity study

Background

Virtual reality (VR) is considered a promising approach to support learning. An instructional design is essential to optimize cognitive processes. Studies show that VR has unique instructional and pedagogical requirements.

Objectives

To evaluate the effectiveness and applicability of the modality principle, which was previously validated in 2D classic multimedia, for learning with VR. The modality principle states that multimedia information presented as spoken narration is superior to on-screen text.

Methods

A prospective experimental study with two compared conditions of instruction: VR-based learning guided by on-screen text (n = 34) versus spoken narration (n = 28). Students' cognitive learning experiences were captured by eye-tracking and electrodermal activity (EDA). In addition, students' knowledge was evaluated using a pre–post knowledge test.

Results and Conclusions

Overall, there was no significant difference in knowledge retention between the participants who learned with on-screen text compared to spoken narration. However, results from the eye-tracking analysis showed that students who learned with the on-screen text devoted longer visual attention toward important learning activity areas of interest, suggesting a better ability to discern between relevant and irrelevant information. Conversely, students who learned with the spoken narration expressed significantly more EDA peak responses, proposing a higher cognitive load.

Implications

This study outlines that while learning with VR was effective, the modality principle might not apply to learning with VR. Moreover, the analysis of the learning process suggests even an inverse effect, favouring the provision of instructional scaffolds as on-screen text. Future research should evaluate this effect on long-term knowledge retention.     

虚拟现实技术在化学反应工程实验教学中的应用

将虚拟现实技术应用到化学反应工程实验教学中,能大大降低成本,同时也能满足实验教学中情景化及自然交互性的要求。本文概述虚拟现实及其实现技术,提出一种构建化学反应工程虚拟实验室的方案。     

Learning effectiveness in a Web-based virtual learning environment: a learner control perspective

Web-based technology has a dramatic impact on learning and teaching. A framework that delineates the relationships between learner control and learning effectiveness is absent. This study aims to fill this void. Our work focuses on the effectiveness of a technology-mediated virtual learning environment (TVLE) in the context of basic information technology skills training. Grounded in the technology-mediated learning literature, this study presents a framework that addresses the relationship between the learner control and learning effectiveness, which contains four categories: learning achievement, self-efficacy, satisfaction, and learning climate. In order to compare the learning effectiveness under traditional classroom and TVLE, we conducted a field experiment. Data were collected from a junior high school of Taiwan. A total of 210 usable responses were analysed. We identified four results from this study. (1) Students in the TVLE environment achieve better learning performance than their counterparts in the traditional environment; (2) Students in the TVLE environment report higher levels of computer self-efficacy than their counterparts in the traditional environment; (3) Students in the TVLE environment report higher levels of satisfaction than students in the traditional environment; and (4) Students in the TVLE environment report higher levels of learning climate than their counterparts in the traditional environment. The implications of this study are discussed, and further research directions are proposed.     

Depth perception in shuffleboard: Depth cues effect on depth perception in virtual and augmented reality system

The virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) applications have been widely used in a variety of fields; one of the key requirements in a VR or AR system is to understand how users perceive depth in the virtual environment and AR. Three different graphics depth cues are designed in shuffleboard to explore what kind of graphics depth cues are beneficial for depth perception. We also conduct a depth‐matching experiment to compare performance in VR and AR systems using an optical see‐through head‐mounted display (HMD). The result shows that the absolute error increases as the distance becomes farther. Analysis from the inverse of distance shows that box depth cues have a significant effect on depth perception, while the points depth cues and line depth cues have no significant effect. The error in diopter in AR experiment is lower than that in VR experiment. Participants in the AR experiment under medium illuminance condition have less error than those under low and high illuminance conditions. Men have less error than women in certain display conditions, but the advantage disappears when there is a strong depth cue. Besides, there is no significant effect of completion time on depth perception.     

The impact of computer-mediated immediate feedback on developing oral presentation skills: An exploratory study in virtual reality

Feedback plays a central role in learning. Crucial to this is the nature and timing of the feedback. This experimental study explores the efficacy of immediate computer-mediated feedback within a virtual reality environment designed to facilitate the development of pre-university students' presentation skills. Two conditions were established to assess the efficacy: immediate computer-mediated feedback; a control condition of delayed expert-mediated feedback. Results showed improvement but no statistically relevant difference in performance gains between the two conditions, suggesting both can facilitate learning. Furthermore, students perceived the environment to be an effective and motivating platform in which to practise presentation skills. For educators seeking viable alternatives to face-to-face presentation practice and feedback, the finding that immediate computer-mediated feedback is potentially as effective in aiding presentation performance is crucial for two reasons: first, it expands practice opportunities for students; second, it could result in less pressure on resources, including time and staffing.     

用于虚拟现实的360度视频编码技术新进展*

随着虚拟现实技术不断发展,360度视频编码开始成为研究热点。应用于虚拟现实的360度视频与传统的视频相比分辨率更高,编码数据量更大,在实际应用中面临传输带宽有限的瓶颈,编码效率问题有待解决。归纳分析了国际标准组织联合视频研究组（joint video exploration team, JVET）正在制定的360度视频编码投影变换技术及其编码优化方法,综合对比了各变换技术的编码性能。根据当前最新研究成果,对下一步研究需要解决的问题进行了探讨总结,给出未来的研究方向和思路。     

The stress and workload of virtual reality training: the effects of presence,immersion and flow

The present investigation evaluated the effects of virtual reality (VR) training on the performance, perceived workload and stress response to a live training exercise in a sample of Soldiers. We also examined the relationship between the perceptions of that same VR as measured by engagement, immersion, presence, flow, perceived utility and ease of use with the performance, workload and stress reported on the live training task. To a degree, these latter relationships were moderated by task performance, as measured by binary (Go/No-Go) ratings. Participants who reported positive VR experiences also tended to experience lower stress and lower workload when performing the live version of the task. Thus, VR training regimens may be efficacious for mitigating the stress and workload associated with criterion tasks, thereby reducing the ultimate likelihood of real-world performance failure.

Practitioner Summary: VR provides opportunities for training in artificial worlds comprised of highly realistic features. Our virtual room clearing scenario facilitated the integration of Training and Readiness objectives and satisfied training doctrine obligations in a compelling engaging experience for both novice and experienced trainees.     

Designing in virtual reality: a comparison of problem-solving styles between desktop and VR environments

With recent breakthroughs in VR devices, new potential of CAD as a design tool is anticipated. Based on the influence of design tools in ideation, we compared the problem-solving styles of WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer) and VRE (Virtual Reality Environment) for an apartment flat design task. Function-Behaviour-Structure ontology analysis revealed that WIMP was problem-driven with clear divisions between problem analysis and solution building, while VRE was predominantly solution-driven with frequent modifications of solutions. Such procedural characteristics led to uneven outcomes wherein spatial efficiency was better in WIMP while arrangement was more diversified in VRE. When the key factor was high manipulability of user interface in VRE, the result suggests that higher usability does not always produce desired outcomes. Time for problem analysis and a match between the tool and given problem must be taken into account.     

The added benefit of an extra practice session in virtual reality on the development of presentation skills: A randomized control trial

Developing oral presentation skills is an essential objective of higher education. While previous research emphasized the importance of practice for developing oral presentation skills (OPS), it remains unclear what the optimal amount of practice is. This experimental field study examined the added benefit of an extra practice session in virtual reality (VR) on the progression of 35 graduate students in OPS, using a pre-test post-test design. In addition, the mediating effect of public speaking anxiety (PSA) was examined and the relation between PSA_, preparation practices, perceived utility of VR and OPS was explored. Questionnaires and performance assessments were used in data collection. Results showed that participants gained benefits from practicing a third time before a virtual audience. Both anxious and non-anxious participants progressed similarly on presentation skills and experienced the VR intervention comparably. However, the optimal number of practice presentations remains unclear and should be further investigated.     

The gain and pain in taking the pilot seat: learning dynamics in a non immersive virtual solar system

This study describes and analyzes the learning interactions of nine high-school students’ free exploration of a virtual solar system (VSS). The VSS is a non-immersive three dimensional virtual environment based on real NASA planetary images. The computer screen serves as a “spacecraft’s window” for the learner to “fly” between objects, to change the system’s frame of reference and its pace. A systematic analysis of participants’ real-time observable interactions together with what they said revealed that each of them created an unique learning pattern within at least five different dimensions: (1) the cognitive dimension, (2) the affective dimension, (3) the navigation dimension, (4) the interface dimension, and (5) the assistance seeking dimension. The construction of meaning emerged as a non-linear process, which includes transitions between and within these dimensions. Three different styles of learning interactions were identified, suggesting that individual differences might be enhanced due to the unique VSS’ features. Overall, the VSS served as an enriching and motivational learning experience. The design of additional navigation tools and content scaffolding might help participants’ in building a sustained deep scientific understanding.     

Learning science in a virtual reality application: The impacts of animated-virtual actors’ visual complexity

As the technology in computer graphics advances, Animated-Virtual Actors (AVAs) in Virtual Reality (VR) applications become increasingly rich and complex. Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) suggests that complex visual materials could hinder novice learners from attending to the lesson properly. On the other hand, previous studies have shown that visual complexity correlates with presence and may increase the perceived affective quality of the virtual world, towards an optimal experience or flow. Increasing these in VR applications may promote enjoyment and higher cognitive engagement for better learning outcomes. While visually complex materials could be motivating and pleasing to attend to, would they affect learning adversely? We developed a series of VR presentations to teach second-year psychology students about the navigational behaviour of Cataglyphis ants with flat, cartoon, or lifelike AVAs. To assess learning outcomes, we used Program Ratings, which measured perception of learning and perceived difficulty, and retention and transfer tests. The results from 200 students did not reveal any significant differences in presence, perceived affective quality, or learning outcomes as a function of the AVA’s visual complexity. While the results showed positive correlations between presence, perceived affective quality and perception of learning, none of these correlates with perceived difficulty, retention, or transfer scores. Nevertheless, our simulation produced significant improvements on retention and transfer scores in all conditions. We discuss possible explanations and future research directions.     

Researching haptics in higher education: The complexity of developing haptics virtual learning systems and evaluating its impact on students’ learning

hapTEL, an interdisciplinary project funded by two UK research councils from 2007 to 2011, involves a large interdisciplinary team (with undergraduate and post-graduate student participants) which has been developing and evaluating a virtual learning system within an HE healthcare education setting, working on three overlapping strands. Strand 1 involves the technical development and evaluation of the hapTEL workstation which simulates clinical conditions for dental training including haptics (sense of touch). Strand 2 involves examining the traditional undergraduate curriculum and how this could benefit from the use of haptics. Strand 3 is concerned with the educational evaluation of the impact of the work carried out within Strands 1 and 2. Two theoretical frameworks (Entwistle, (1987) and Webb and Cox (2004)) have been used to identify as many factors as possible which could affect the impact of Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) on the quality of the learning achieved. These frameworks have formed a foundation for measuring the impact of TEL on curriculum change, teachers’ pedagogical practices, students’ learning and on institutional practices. A range of quantitative and qualitative methods were designed, piloted and evaluated in order to measure the impact of TEL on teaching and learning; and to have a rich and robust data set which also addresses the variables in the frameworks. The results from using these frameworks show that institutional and departmental factors should be considered when evaluating the impact of TEL in higher education and that these had a major influence on the design and curriculum integration of the hapTEL systems. We have also shown that by involving the end users from the beginning enabled not only an enhancement of the students’ learning experiences but also a modification to the traditional curriculum itself and the successful integration of TEL within a very traditional undergraduate higher education dental curriculum. The conclusions from this paper confirm earlier reviews of researching TEL that technology integration is extremely complex and the related research requires a comprehensive approach of both quantitative and qualitative methods if one is to take account of the range of variables identified by theoretical frameworks. Finally, repeating the range of empirical investigations for a second year enables researchers to validate the effectiveness of the methods used in the initial year and thereby maximise the reliability and generalisability of the research outcomes.