Volatile organic compounds in fourteen U.S. retail stores

Retail buildings have a potential for both short‐term (customer) and long‐term (occupational) exposure to indoor pollutants. However, little is known about volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations in the retail sector and influencing factors, such as ventilation, in‐store activities, and store type. We measured VOC concentrations and ventilation rates in 14 retail stores in Texas and Pennsylvania. With the exception of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, VOCs were present in retail stores at concentrations well below health guidelines. Indoor formaldehyde concentrations ranged from 4.6 ppb to 67 ppb. The two mid‐sized grocery stores in the sample had the highest levels of ethanol and acetaldehyde, with concentrations up to 2.6 ppm and 92 ppb, respectively, possibly due to the preparation of dough and baking activities. Indoor‐to‐outdoor concentration ratios indicated that indoor sources were the main contributors to indoor VOC concentrations for the majority of compounds. There was no strong correlation between ventilation and VOC concentrations across all stores. However, increasing the air exchange rates at two stores led to lower indoor VOC concentrations, suggesting that ventilation can be used to reduce concentrations for some specific stores.     

Volatile organic compounds in 169 energy-efficient dwellings in Switzerland

Exposure to elevated levels of certain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in households has been linked to deleterious health effects. This study presents the first large-scale investigation of VOC levels in 169 energy-efficient dwellings in Switzerland. Through a combination of physical measurements and questionnaire surveys, we investigated the influence of diverse building characteristics on indoor VOCs. Among 74 detected compounds, carbonyls, alkanes, and alkenes were the most abundant. Median concentration levels of formaldehyde (14 μg/m³), TVOC (212 μg/m³), benzene (<0.1 μg/m³), and toluene (22 μg/m³) were below the upper exposure limits. Nonetheless, 90% and 50% of dwellings exceeded the chronic exposure limits for formaldehyde (9 μg/m³) and TVOC (200 μg/m³), respectively. There was a strong positive correlation among VOCs that likely originated from common sources. Dwellings built between 1950s and 1990s, and especially, those with attached garages had higher TVOC concentrations. Interior thermal retrofit of dwellings and absence of mechanical ventilation system were associated with elevated levels of formaldehyde, aromatics, and alkanes. Overall, energy-renovated homes had higher levels of certain VOCs compared with newly built homes. The results suggest that energy efficiency measures in dwellings should be accompanied by actions to mitigate VOC exposures as to avoid adverse health outcomes.     

Estimated effect of ventilation and filtration on chronic health risks in U.S. offices,schools, and retail stores

We assessed the chronic health risks from inhalation exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter (PM2.5) in U.S. offices, schools, grocery, and other retail stores and evaluated how chronic health risks were affected by changes in ventilation rates and air filtration efficiency. Representative concentrations of VOCs and PM2.5 were obtained from available data. Using a mass balance model, changes in exposure to VOCs and PM2.5 were predicted if ventilation rate were to increase or decrease by a factor of two, and if higher efficiency air filters were used. Indoor concentrations were compared to health guidelines to estimate percentage exceedances. The estimated chronic health risks associated with VOC and PM2.5 exposures in these buildings were low relative to the risks from exposures in homes. Chronic health risks were driven primarily by exposures to PM2.5 that were evaluated using disease incidence of mortality, chronic bronchitis, and non‐fatal stroke. The leading cancer risk factor was exposure to formaldehyde. Using disability‐adjusted life years (DALYs) to account for both cancer and non‐cancer effects, results suggest that increasing ventilation alone is ineffective at reducing chronic health burdens. Other strategies, such as pollutant source control and the use of particle filtration, should also be considered.     

Influencing factors of carbonyl compounds and other VOCs in commercial airliner cabins: On-board investigation of 56 flights

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as a non-negligible aircraft cabin air quality (CAQ) factor influence the health and comfort of passengers and crew members. On-board measurements of carbonyls (short-chain (C₁-C₆)) and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs, long-chain (C₆-C₁₆)) with a total of 350 samples were conducted in 56 commercial airliner cabins covering 8 aircraft models in this study. The mean concentration for each individual carbonyl compound was between 0.3 and 8.3 μg/m³ (except for acrolein & acetone, average = 20.7 μg/m³) similar to the mean concentrations of other highly detected VOCs (long-chain (C₆-C₁₆), 97% of which ranged in 0–10 μg/m³) in aircraft cabins. Formaldehyde concentrations in flights were significantly lower than in residential buildings, where construction materials are known formaldehyde sources. Acetone is a VOC emitted by humans, and its concentration in flights was similar to that in other high-occupant density transportation vehicles. The variation of VOC concentrations in different flight phases of long-haul flights was the same as that of CO₂ concentration except for the meal phase, which indicates the importance of cabin ventilation in diluting the gaseous contaminants, while the sustained and slow growth of the VOC concentrations during the cruising phase in short-haul flights indicated that the ventilation could not adequately dilute the emission of VOCs. For the different categories of VOCs, the mean concentration during the cruising phase of benzene series, aldehydes, alkanes, other VOCs (detection rate > 50%), and carbonyls in long-haul flights was 44.2 µg/m³, 17.9 µg/m³, 18.6 µg/m³, 31.5 µg/m³, and 20.4 µg/m³ lower than those in short-haul flights, respectively. Carbonyls and d-limonene showed a significant correlation with meal service (p < 0.05). Unlike the newly decorated rooms or new vehicles, the inner materials were not the major emission sources in aircraft cabins. Practical Implications.

• The on-board measurements of 56 flights enrich the VOC database of cabin environment, especially for carbonyls. The literature review of carbonyls in the past 20 years contributes to the understanding the current status of cabin air quality (CAQ).
• The analysis of VOC concentration variation for different flight phases, flight duration, and aircraft age lays a foundation for exploring effective control methods, including ventilation and purification for cabin VOC pollution.
• The enriched VOC data is helpful to explore the key VOCs of aircraft cabin environment and to evaluate the acute/chronic health exposure risk of pollutants for passengers and crew members.

     

Factors controlling volatile organic compounds in dwellings in Melbourne,Australia

This study characterized indoor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and investigated the effects of the dwelling characteristics, building materials, occupant activities, and environmental conditions on indoor VOC concentrations in 40 dwellings located in Melbourne, Australia, in 2008 and 2009. A total of 97 VOCs were identified. Nine VOCs, n‐butane, 2‐methylbutane, toluene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, d‐limonene, ethanol, 2‐propanol, and acetic acid, accounted for 68% of the sum of all VOCs. The median indoor concentrations of all VOCs were greater than those measured outdoors. The occupant density was positively associated with indoor VOC concentrations via occupant activities, including respiration and combustion. Terpenes were associated with the use of household cleaning and laundry products. A petroleum‐like indoor VOC signature of alkanes and aromatics was associated with the proximity of major roads. The indoor VOC concentrations were negatively correlated (P < 0.05) with ventilation. Levels of VOCs in these Australian dwellings were lower than those from previous studies in North America and Europe, probably due to a combination of an ongoing temporal decrease in indoor VOC concentrations and the leakier nature of Australian dwellings.     

Biological and environmental exposure monitoring of volatile organic compounds among nail technicians in the Greater Boston area

Nail technicians are exposed to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from nail products, but no studies have previously measured VOC biomarkers for these workers. This study of 10 nail technicians aimed to identify VOCs in nail salons and explore relationships between air concentrations and biomarkers. Personal and area air samples were collected using thermal desorption tubes during a work shift and analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for 71 VOCs. Whole blood samples were collected pre‐shift and post‐shift, and analyzed using GC/MS for 43 VOCs. Ventilation rates were determined using continuous CO₂ measurements. Predominant air VOC levels were ethyl methacrylate (median 240 µg/m³), methyl methacrylate (median 205 µg/m³), toluene (median 100 µg/m³), and ethyl acetate (median 639 µg/m³). Blood levels were significantly higher post‐shift than pre‐shift for toluene (median pre‐shift 0.158 µg/L and post‐shift 0.360 µg/L) and ethyl acetate (median pre‐shift <0.158 µg/L and post‐shift 0.510 µg/L); methacrylates were not measured in blood because of their instability. Based on VOCs measured in these seven nail salons, we estimated that emissions from Greater Boston area nail salons may contribute to ambient VOCs. Ventilation rates did not always meet the ASHRAE guideline for nail salons. There is a need for changes in nail product formulation and better ventilation to reduce VOC occupational exposures.     

Levels and sources of volatile organic compounds in homes of children with asthma

Many volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are classified as known or possible carcinogens, irritants, and toxicants, and VOC exposure has been associated with the onset and exacerbation of asthma. This study characterizes VOC levels in 126 homes of children with asthma in Detroit, Michigan, USA. The total target VOC concentration ranged from 14 to 2274 μg/m³ (mean = 150 μg/m³; median = 91 μg/m³); 56 VOCs were quantified; and d‐limonene, toluene, p, m‐xylene, and ethyl acetate had the highest concentrations. Based on the potential for adverse health effects, priority VOCs included naphthalene, benzene, 1,4‐dichlorobenzene, isopropylbenzene, ethylbenzene, styrene, chloroform, 1,2‐dichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, and trichloroethylene. Concentrations varied mostly due to between‐residence and seasonal variation. Identified emission sources included cigarette smoking, solvent‐related emissions, renovations, household products, and pesticides. The effect of nearby traffic on indoor VOC levels was not distinguished. While concentrations in the Detroit homes were lower than levels found in other North American studies, many homes had elevated VOC levels, including compounds that are known health hazards. Thus, the identification and control of VOC sources are important and prudent, especially for vulnerable individuals. Actions and policies to reduce VOC exposures, for example, sales restrictions, improved product labeling, and consumer education, are recommended.     

VOC exposures in California early childhood education environments

Little information exists about exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in early childhood education (ECE) environments. We measured 38 VOCs in single‐day air samples collected in 2010‐2011 from 34 ECE facilities serving California children and evaluated potential health risks. We also examined unknown peaks in the GC/MS chromatographs for indoor samples and identified 119 of these compounds using mass spectral libraries. VOCs found in cleaning and personal care products had the highest indoor concentrations (d‐limonene and decamethylcyclopentasiloxane [D5] medians: 33.1 and 51.4 μg/m³, respectively). If reflective of long‐term averages, child exposures to benzene, chloroform, ethylbenzene, and naphthalene exceeded age‐adjusted “safe harbor levels” based on California's Proposition 65 guidelines (10^?5 lifetime cancer risk) in 71%, 38%, 56%, and 97% of facilities, respectively. For VOCs without health benchmarks, we used information from toxicological databases and quantitative structure–activity relationship models to assess potential health concerns and identified 12 VOCs that warrant additional evaluation, including a number of terpenes and fragrance compounds. While VOC levels in ECE facilities resemble those in school and home environments, mitigation strategies are warranted to reduce exposures. More research is needed to identify sources and health risks of many VOCs and to support outreach to improve air quality in ECE facilities.     

Investigation of volatile organic compounds in office buildings in Bangkok,Thailand: Concentrations,sources, and occupant symptoms

To conserve energy, office buildings with air-conditioning systems in Thailand are operated with a tight thermal envelope. This leads to low fresh-air ventilation rates and is thought to be partly responsible for the sick building syndrome symptoms reported by occupants. The objectives of this study are to measure concentrations and to determine sources of 13 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in office buildings with air-conditioning systems in the business area of Bangkok. Indoor and outdoor air samples from 17 buildings were collected on Tenax-TA^™ sorbent tubes and analyzed for individual VOCs by thermal desorption-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (TD–GC/MS). Building ventilation was measured with a constant injection technique using hexafluorobenzene as a tracer gas. The results show that the VOC concentrations varied significantly among the studied buildings. The two most dominant VOCs were toluene and limonene with average concentrations of 110 and 60.5 μg m⁻³, respectively. A Wilcoxon sum rank test indicated that the indoor concentrations of aromatic compounds and limonene were statistically higher than outdoor concentrations at the 0.05 level, while the indoor concentrations of chlorinated compounds were not. Indoor emission factors of toluene and limonene were found to be highest with the average values of 80.9 and 18.9 μg m⁻² h⁻¹, respectively. Principal component analysis was applied to the emission factors of 13 VOCs, producing three components based on source similarities. Furthermore, a questionnaire survey investigation and field measurements of building air exchange pointed to indoor air complaints related to inadequate ventilation.     

Performance of ultraviolet photocatalytic oxidation for indoor air cleaning applications

Ultraviolet photocatalytic oxidation (UVPCO) systems for removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air are being considered for use in office buildings. Here, we report an experimental evaluation of a UVPCO device with tungsten oxide modified titanium dioxide (TiO2) as the photocatalyst. The device was challenged with complex VOC mixtures. One mixture contained 27 VOCs characteristic of office buildings and another comprised 10 VOCs emitted by cleaning products, in both cases at realistic concentrations (low ppb range). VOC conversion efficiencies varied widely, usually exceeded 20%, and were as high as approximately 80% at about 0.03 s residence time. Conversion efficiency generally diminished with increased airflow rate, and followed the order: alcohols and glycol ethers > aldehydes, ketones, and terpene hydrocarbons > aromatic and alkane hydrocarbons > halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons. Conversion efficiencies correlated with the Henry's law constant more closely than with other physicochemical parameters. An empirical model based on the Henry's law constant and the gas-phase reaction rate with hydroxyl radical provided reasonable estimates of pseudo-first order photocatalytic reaction rates. Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetone, formic acid and acetic acid were produced by the device due to incomplete mineralization of common VOCs. Formaldehyde outlet/inlet concentration ratios were in the range 1.9-7.2. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: Implementation of air cleaning technologies for both VOCs and particles in office buildings may improve indoor air quality, or enable indoor air quality levels to be maintained with reduced outdoor air supply and concomitant energy savings. One promising air cleaning technology is ultraviolet photocatalytic oxidation (UVPCO) air cleaning. For the prototype device evaluated here with realistic mixtures of VOCs, conversion efficiencies typically exceeded the minimum required to counteract predicted VOC concentration increases from a 50% reduction in ventilation. However, the device resulted in the net generation of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde from the partial oxidation of ubiquitous VOCs. Further development of the technology is needed to eliminate these hazardous air pollutants before such a UVPCO device can be deployed in buildings.     

Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde exposure mitigation in US residences: in‐home measurements of ventilation control and source control

Measurements were taken in new US residences to assess the extent to which ventilation and source control can mitigate formaldehyde exposure. Increasing ventilation consistently lowered indoor formaldehyde concentrations. However, at a reference air exchange rate of 0.35 h^?1, increasing ventilation was up to 60% less effective than would be predicted if the emission rate were constant. This is consistent with formaldehyde emission rates decreasing as air concentrations increase, as observed in chamber studies. In contrast, measurements suggest acetaldehyde emission was independent of ventilation rate. To evaluate the effectiveness of source control, formaldehyde concentrations were measured in Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)‐certified/Indoor airPLUS homes constructed with materials certified to have low emission rates of volatile organic compounds (VOC). At a reference air exchange rate of 0.35 h^?1, and adjusting for home age, temperature and relative humidity, formaldehyde concentrations in homes built with low‐VOC materials were 42% lower on average than in reference new homes with conventional building materials. Without adjustment, concentrations were 27% lower in the low‐VOC homes. The mean and standard deviation of formaldehyde concentration was 33 μg/m³ and 22 μg/m³ for low‐VOC homes and 45 μg/m³ and 30 μg/m³ for conventional.     

Indoor air quality in shopping and storage areas

In retail stores, workers are constantly exposed to new manufactured goods. The issue of the exposure of retail workers to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) should clearly be considered. Therefore, this study provides data regarding VOC concentrations in ten French retail stores. The stores were chosen to represent various products: sports goods, shoes and leather, furniture, car equipment, bazaars, online-sales storage, clothes, books, DIY (do-it-yourself), and household appliances. VOCs and aldehydes were actively sampled on the same day in five to seven locations per building and outdoors. Toluene and formaldehyde were omnipresent with indoor concentrations reaching 252 and 53 µg/m³, respectively. The car equipment store, followed by clothing, shoes, and leather, and DIY stores showed the worst indoor air quality. High concentrations were measured, for example, the maximum α-pinene concentration in the furniture and DIY stores was 364 and 141 µg/m³, respectively, and the heptane concentration in the car equipment store reached 1,316 µg/m³. Two VOCs classified as toxic to reproduction were measured: hexane in the car equipment store and the bazaar, and dimethylformamide in the sports goods store. This study shows some disparities in the indoor concentrations among different locations in the same store, particularly between sales and storage areas.     

Health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds at daycare facilities

Children are particularly vulnerable to many classes of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) detected in indoor environments. The negative health impacts associated with chronic and acute exposures of the VOCs might lead to health issues such as genetic damage, cancer, and disorder of nervous systems. In this study, 40 VOCs including aldehydes and ketones, aliphatic hydrocarbons, esters, aromatic hydrocarbons, cyclic terpenes, alcohols, and glycol ethers were identified and qualified in different locations at the University of Missouri (MU) Child Development Laboratory (CDL) in Columbia, Missouri. Our results suggested that the concentrations of the VOCs varied significantly among classrooms, hallways, and playground. The VOCs emitted from personal care and cleaning products had the highest indoor levels (2-ethylhexanol-1, 3-carene, homomenthyl salicylate with mean concentration of 5.15 µg/m³, 1.57 µg/m³, and 1.47 µg/m³, respectively). A cancer risk assessment was conducted, and none of the 95th percentile dose estimates exceeded the age-specific no significant risk levels (NSRL) in all classrooms. Dimensionless toxicity index scores were calculated for all VOCs using a novel web-based framework called Toxicological Prioritization Index (ToxPi), which integrates multiple sources of toxicity data. According to the method, homomenthyl salicylate, benzothiazole, 2-ethylhexyl salicylate, hexadecane, and tridecane exhibited diverse toxicity profiles and ranked as the five most toxic indoor VOCs. The findings of this study provide critical information for policy makers and early education professionals to mitigate the potentially negative health impacts of indoor VOCs in the childcare facilities.     

Evaluation on potential for assessing indoor formaldehyde using biosensor system based on swimming behavior of Japanese medaka (oryzias latipes)

In order to develop an early-warning biosensor system for predicting the impact on health of long-term and low-level exposure to indoor chemical compounds, e.g. volatile organic compounds (VOCs), we evaluated the potential for assessing indoor air quality using the biosensor system based on the swimming behavior of Japanese medaka (oryzias latipes) as an indicator of indoor air quality in the beginning. As a technology to dissolve chemical compounds into water efficiently, a micro bubble generator was introduced. The test chemical was formaldehyde which is a representative of chemical compounds existing indoors. The result of the measuring solubility of formaldehyde was that formaldehyde concentration in water was raised to 0.12 mg/L when 1.0 mg/m³ of formaldehyde in air was bubbled for approximately 44 h. The correlation between the 0.1 mg/L of formaldehyde in water, which is roughly equivalent to 0.83 mg/m³ of formaldehyde in air, and the swimming activities of medaka was investigated. The fish showed abnormal behavior compared to one under a control treatment, e.g. the body movement distance decreased and the duration time near the upper water column increased significantly. It was verified that it is possible to detect concentrations of formaldehyde of 0.83 mg/m³ in indoor air using this proposed biosensor system.     

Air exchange rates and migration of VOCs in basements and residences

Basements can influence indoor air quality by affecting air exchange rates (AERs) and by the presence of emission sources of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other pollutants. We characterized VOC levels, AERs, and interzonal flows between basements and occupied spaces in 74 residences in Detroit, Michigan. Flows were measured using a steady‐state multitracer system, and 7‐day VOC measurements were collected using passive samplers in both living areas and basements. A walk‐through survey/inspection was conducted in each residence. AERs in residences and basements averaged 0.51 and 1.52/h, respectively, and had strong and opposite seasonal trends, for example, AERs were highest in residences during the summer, and highest in basements during the winter. Airflows from basements to occupied spaces also varied seasonally. VOC concentration distributions were right‐skewed, for example, 90th percentile benzene, toluene, naphthalene, and limonene concentrations were 4.0, 19.1, 20.3, and 51.0 μg/m³, respectively; maximum concentrations were 54, 888, 1117, and 134 μg/m³. Identified VOC sources in basements included solvents, household cleaners, air fresheners, smoking, and gasoline‐powered equipment. The number and type of potential VOC sources found in basements are significant and problematic, and may warrant advisories regarding the storage and use of potentially strong VOCs sources in basements.     

Risk assessment of exposure to volatile organic compounds in groundwater in Taiwan

The purpose of this study is to assess the risks from exposure to 14 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in selected groundwater sites in Taiwan. The study employs the multimedia environment pollutant assessment system (MEPAS) model to calculate the specific non-cancer and cancer risks at an exposure level of 1 μg/L of each VOC for a variety of exposure pathways. The results show that the highest specific non-cancer risk is associated with water ingestion of vinyl chloride (VC) and that the highest specific cancer risk is associated with indoor breathing of VC. The three most important exposure pathways for risk assessment for both non-cancer and cancer risks are identified as water ingestion, dermal absorption when showering, and indoor breathing. Excess tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE), dichloroethylene (DCE), and VC are detected in the groundwater aquifers of one dump site and one factory. However, the study suggests that the pollutants in the contaminated groundwater aquifers do not travel extensively with groundwater flow and that the resulting VOC concentrations are below detectable levels for most of the sampled drinking-water treatment plants. Nevertheless, the non-cancer and cancer risks resulting from use of the contaminated groundwater are found to be hundred times higher than the general risk guidance values. To ensure safe groundwater utilisation, remediation initiatives for soil and groundwater are required. Finally, the study suggests that the current criteria for VOCs in drinking water might not be capable of ensuring public safety when groundwater is used as the primary water supply; more stringent quality criteria for drinking water are proposed for selected VOCs.     

The MERMAID study: indoor and outdoor average pollutant concentrations in 10 low‐energy school buildings in France

Indoor air quality was characterized in 10 recently built energy‐efficient French schools during two periods of 4.5 days. Carbon dioxide time‐resolved measurements during occupancy clearly highlight the key role of the ventilation rate (scheduled or occupancy indexed), especially in this type of building, which was tightly sealed and equipped with a dual‐flow ventilation system to provide air refreshment. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and inorganic gases (ozone and NO₂) were measured indoors and outdoors by passive techniques during the occupied and the unoccupied periods. Over 150 VOC species were identified. Among them, 27 species were selected for quantification, based on their occurrence. High concentrations were found for acetone, 2‐butanone, formaldehyde, toluene, and hexaldehyde. However, these concentrations are lower than those previously observed in conventional school buildings. The indoor/outdoor and unoccupied/occupied ratios are informative regarding emission sources. Except for benzene, ozone, and NO₂, all the pollutants in these buildings have an indoor source. Occupancy is associated with increased levels of acetone, 2‐butanone, pentanal, butyl acetate, and alkanes.     

Acute health effects from exposure to indoor ultrafine particles—A randomized controlled crossover study among young mild asthmatics

Particulate matter is linked to adverse health effects, however, little is known about health effects of particles emitted from typical indoor sources. We examined acute health effects of short-term exposure to emissions from cooking and candles among asthmatics. In a randomized controlled double-blinded crossover study, 36 young non-smoking asthmatics attended three exposure sessions lasting 5 h: (a) air mixed with emissions from cooking (fine particle mass concentration): (PM_2.5: 96.1 μg/m³), (b) air mixed with emissions from candles (PM_2.5: 89.8 μg/m³), and c) clean filtered air (PM_2.5: 5.8 μg/m³). Health effects (spirometry, fractional exhaled Nitric Oxide [FeNO], nasal volume and self-reported symptoms) were evaluated before exposure start, then 5 and 24 h after. During exposures volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particle size distributions, number concentrations and optical properties were measured. Generally, no statistically significant changes were observed in spirometry, FeNO, or nasal volume comparing cooking and candle exposures to clean air. In males, nasal volume and FeNO decreased after exposure to cooking and candles, respectively. Participants reported additional and more pronounced symptoms during exposure to cooking and candles compared to clean air. The results indicate that emissions from cooking and candles exert mild inflammation in asthmatic males and decrease comfort among asthmatic males and females.     

Unexpected increase in indoor pollutants after the introduction of a smoke‐free policy in a correctional center

Correctional centers (prisons) are one of the few non‐residential indoor environments where smoking is still permitted. However, few studies have investigated indoor air quality (IAQ) in these locations. We quantified the level of inmate and staff exposure to secondhand smoke, including particle number (PN) count, and we assessed the impact of the smoking ban on IAQ. We performed measurements of indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 and PN concentrations, personal PN exposure levels, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and nicotine both before and after a complete indoor smoking ban in an Australian maximum security prison. Results show that the indoor 24‐h average PM_2.5 concentrations ranged from 6 (±1) μg/m³ to 17 (±3) μg/m³ pre‐ban. The post‐ban levels ranged from 7 (±2) μg/m³ to 71 (±43) μg/m³. While PM_2.5 concentrations decreased in one unit post‐ban, they increased in the other two units. Similar post‐ban increases were also observed in levels of PN and VOCs. We describe an unexpected increase of indoor pollutants following a total indoor smoking ban in a prison that was reflected across multiple pollutants that are markers of smoking. We hypothesise that clandestine post‐ban smoking among inmates may have been the predominant cause.     

Estimating person-to-person variability in VOC emissions from personal care products used during showering

An increasing fraction of volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions come from the domestic use of solvents, contained within myriad commonplace consumer products. Emission rates are often poorly characterized and depend significantly on individual behavior and specific product formulation and usage. Time-concentration profiles of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) arising from the use of a representative selection of personal care products (PCPs) during showering are generated, and person-to-person variability in emissions calculated. A panel of 18 participants used a standardized set of products, dosages, and application times during showering in a controlled indoor bathroom setting. Proton transfer mass spectrometry was used to measure the in-room VOC evolution of limonene (representing the sum of monoterpenes), benzyl alcohol, and ethanol. The release of VOCs had reproducible patterns between users, but noticeable variations in absolute peak concentrations, despite identical amounts of material being used. The amounts of VOC emitted to air for one showering activity were as follows: limonene (1.77 mg ± 42%), benzyl alcohol (1.07 mg ± 41%), and ethanol (0.33 mg ± 78%). Real-world emissions to air were between 1.3 and 11 times lower than bottom-up estimates based on dynamic headspace measurements of product emissions rates, likely a result of PCPs being washed away before VOC evaporation could occur.