Safety analysis of a supercritical-pressure water-cooled fast reactor under supercritical pressure

The supercritical-pressure water-cooled fast reactor (SWFR) is a fast spectrum supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR) studied by the University of Tokyo. The SWFR is designed as a two-pass core with an outlet temperature 500 °C. The SWFR has fuel channels cooled by downward flow, higher power density, and smaller coolant density reactivity feedback compared with Super LWR. This paper describes the safety analyses of abnormal events for the SWFR. SPRAT-F code is used for the safety analysis at supercritical pressure considering the downward flow cooled seed fuel channel. This code is based on a 1-D node junction model with point kinetics and decay heat calculations. Flow redistribution among parallel paths is calculated by pressure-loss balance and momentum conservation. The initiating events are selected from those of LWRs. For the safety analysis, nine abnormal transients and four accidents are selected with considering types of abnormality. By the numerical analyses, it was found that the loss of flow events can be mitigated by the “water source” effect of the downward flow blanket channels in the abnormal transients and accidents. All the abnormal events satisfy the criteria with margin.     

Single-pass core design of a low-temperature Super LWR

A supercritical-pressure light water cooled and moderated reactor (Super LWR) with a single-pass flow scheme is developed for simplifying upper core structures. Both coolant in the fuel channels and the water rods flow upward and are mixed in the upper plenum. It eliminates the moderator guide/distribution tubes in the upper core that were used in the previous Super LWR design adopting two-pass coolant flow scheme. This core design adopts a four-batch fuel management scheme and an out–in fuel loading pattern. One hundred and twenty-one fuel assemblies with an active height of 3.7 m are included. The flow rate fraction for water rods is 3.5%, and the thermal insulator is used to keep the moderator temperature below pseudocritical temperature. The equilibrium core is analyzed by using neutronic and thermal-hydraulic coupled calculation. The results show that the maximum cladding surface temperature (MCST) is limited to 485 °C with the average outlet temperature of 400 °C. The inherent safety is fulfilled by the positive water density reactivity coefficient and sufficient shutdown margin. On the other hand, the investigation of average outlet coolant temperature varying with MCST is carried out to explore the maximum outlet temperature by employing current MCST criterion and single-pass core design. The average outlet temperature increases with the MCST, and it achieves 465 °C with the thermal efficiency of 43.1% at the MCST criterion of 650 °C. The structure inside the reactor pressure vessel is simplified as a pressurized water reactor.     

Safety of Super LWR, (I) Safety System Design

This paper describes design concept of safety system of the high-temperature supercritical pressure light water cooled reactor with downward-flow water rods (Super LWR). Since this reactor is once-through cooling system without water level and coolant circulation, the fundamental safety requirement is keeping core coolant flow rate while that of light water reactors (LWR) is keeping coolant inventory. “Coolant supply from cold-leg” and “coolant outlet at hot-leg” are needed for it. The advantage of the once-through cooling system is that reactor depressurization induces core coolant flow and cools the core. The downward-flow water rod system enhances this effect because the top dome and the water rods supply its water inventory to the core like an “in-vessel accumulator.” The safety system of the Super LWR is designed referring to those of LWR in consideration of its characteristics and safety principle. “Coolant supply” is kept by high-pressure auxiliary feedwater system and low-pressure core injection system. “Coolant outlet” is kept by safety relief valves and automatic depressurization system. The Super LWR is equipped with two independent shutdown systems: reactor scram system and standby liquid control system. The capacities and the actuation conditions determined in this study are to be used in safety analysis.     

Improved lumped parameter formulation for simplified LWR thermohydraulic analysis

Transient heat transfer in a nuclear fuel rod is modelled by an improved lumped parameter approach. Hermite approximation for integration is used to obtain the average fuel and cladding temperatures in the radial direction. Thermohydraulic behaviour of a pressurized water reactor (PWR) during reactivity insertion and partial loss-of-flow is simulated by using a simplified mathematical model of reactor core and primary coolant. Transient temperature response of fuel, cladding and coolant is analysed.     

On the accuracy of reactor physics calculations for square HPLWR fuel assemblies

Although the supercritical-pressure or high-performance light water reactor (HPLWR) concept is largely based on the well-established technological experience available with conventional light water reactors, there is still no consensus on various key design features such as an optimal layout for the fuel assembly. This results mainly from the very large density variations of supercritical-pressure water in the core, which render it difficult to ensure reliable values for parameters such as power peaking factors and reactivity worths. The present paper describes studies carried out to compare deterministic and Monte Carlo codes for analysing a representative square HPLWR lattice with uniform 5%-enriched UO₂ fuel. The main purpose has been to assess the prediction accuracies achievable for integral parameters such as the multiplication factor, control absorber effectiveness, moderator/coolant density reactivity feedback and pin power distributions. The results show good agreement between the deterministic and stochastic calculations for the unperturbed lattice. However, for certain perturbed situations involving, for example, local coolant density changes in the assembly or control absorber insertion, the observed discrepancies are large enough to question the basic viability of the reactor physics design, e.g. with respect to the thermal performance.     

Innovations in the ENHS reactor design and fuel cycle

A number of approaches were explored for improving characteristics of the encapsulated nuclear heat source (ENHS) reactor and its fuel cycle, including: increasing the ENHS module power, power density and the specific power, making the core design insensitive to the actinides composition variation with number of fuel recycling and reducing the positive void coefficient of reactivity. Design innovations examined for power increase include intermediate heat exchanger (IHX) design optimization, riser diameter optimization, introducing a flow partition inside the riser, increasing the cooling time of the LWR discharged TRU, increasing the minor actinides' concentration in the loaded fuel and split-enrichment for power flattening. Another design innovation described utilizes a unique synergism between the use of MA and the design of reduced power ENHS cores.

Also described is a radically different ENHS reactor concept that has a solid core from which heat pipes transport the fission power to a coolant circulating around the reflector. Promising features of this design concept include enhanced decay heat removal capability; no positive void reactivity coefficient; no direct contact between the fuel clad and the coolant; a core that is more robust for transportation; higher coolant temperature potentially offering higher energy conversion efficiency and hydrogen production capability.     

Safety Analysis of Abnormal Reactivity Events in HTTR

Abstract

To confirm the safety of the High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR) facility which is being constructed as the first high temperature gas cooled reactor in Japan, the representative abnormal reactivity events assumed in the safety analysis of the HTTR were analyzed. The HTTR is a graphite moderated and He-gas-cooled reactor with thermal power of 30 MW, inlet coolant temperature of 395°C and outlet coolant temperature of 950°C.

This report presents the analytical results of two representative events, “Abnormal control rod withdrawal from a subcritical condition” and “Abnormal control rod withdrawal during the full power operation”, showing that the safety of the HTTR is secured in conformity with the unique features of the HTTR with respect to the maximum fuel temperature, which is a key factor for the safety criteria.

The results of the safety analysis could demonstrate the safety of the HTTR facility with respect to abnormal reactivity events postulated in the HTTR, showing that the maximum fuel temperature is lower than the limit of the maximum fuel temperature of 1,600°C.     

LOCA Analysis of Super Fast Reactor

This paper describes loss of coolant accident (LOCA) analyses of the Supercritical-pressure Water-Cooled Fast Reactor (Super Fast Reactor). The features of the Super Fast Reactor are high power density and downward flow cooled fuel channels for the improvement of the economic potential of the Super Fast Reactor with high outlet steam temperature. The LOCA induces large pressure and coolant density change in the core. This change influences the flow distribution among the downward flow parallel channels. It will affect the safety of the Super Fast Reactor. LOCA analysis of Super Fast Reactor is important to understand the safety features of the Super Fast Reactor. Keeping the flow rate in the core is important for the safety of the Super Fast Reactor. In LOCA, it is difficult to maintain an adequate flow rate due to the once-through coolant cycle and the downward flow cooled fuel assemblies. Therefore, the early actuation of the Automatic Depressurization System (ADS) and reduction of the maximum linear heat generation rates of the downward flow seed fuel assemblies and Low-Pressure Core Spray (LPCS) system are necessary for the Super Fast Reactor to cool the core under LOCA. Analysis results show that the Super Fast Reactor can satisfy the safety criteria with these systems.     

Transient tests on blower trip and rod removal at the HTR-10

Safety demonstration tests on the 10 MW high temperature gas-cooled reactor test module (HTR-10) were conducted to verify the inherent safety features of MHTGRs and to obtain the core and primary cooling system transient data for validation of safety analysis codes.Two simulated anticipated transients without scram (ATWS) tests, lose of forced cooling by trip of the helium blower and reactivity insertion via control rod withdrawal were performed. This paper describes the tests with detailed test method, condition and results.Calculated results show that the strongly negative temperature coefficient causes reactor power to closely follow heat removal levels. Maximum fuel temperature changes are limited by the large core heat capacity to below 1230 °C during two tests.The test of tripping the helium circulator ATWS test was conducted on October 15, 2003. Although none of 10 control rods was moved, the reactor power immediately decreased due to the negative temperature coefficient. After about 50 min, the reactor became criticality again. Finally, the reactor power went to a stable level with about 200 kW.The test of reactivity insertion ATWS test was conducted two times. Following the control rod withdrawal, the reactor power increased rapidly, the maximum power level reached to 5037 and 7230 kW from the initial power of 3000 kW in accordance with reactivity insertion of $ 0.136 and 0.689, respectively. After the reactivity introduced was compensated by means of the strong negative reactivity feedback effect, the reactor went to subcritical and the power decreased.     

Accuracy of nuclear design of fast and thermal neutron coupled core by SRAC

Supercritical-pressure light water cooled fast reactor adopts the blanket fuel assemblies with depleted uranium fuel and zirconium hydride layer in the core for negative coolant void reactivity. Thermal neutrons are generated in the core of fast reactor. It is called “fast and thermal neutron coupled core”. The purpose of the present study is to examine the accuracy of assembly and core calculations including preparation of the macroscopic cross sections with the SRAC code system for “fast and thermal neutron coupled core” in comparison with the Monte Carlo codes, MVP and MVP-BURN. Accuracy of the neutron multiplication factor and coolant void reactivity calculation has been evaluated in four types of cores of different fractions of the blanket fuel assembly with zirconium hydride rods. The conventional analysis is based on the macroscopic cross sections which are prepared with infinite lattice. The conventional SRAC calculation underestimates the neuron multiplication factor for all types of cores. Other findings are that the conventional SRAC calculation overestimates coolant void reactivity for the cores without zirconium hydride rods, and underestimates coolant void reactivity for the core of all blanket fuel assemblies having zirconium hydride rods. To overcome these problems, it has been proposed that the macroscopic cross sections of seed fuel assembly are prepared with the model that a seed fuel assembly is surrounded by blanket fuel assemblies in order to take into account the effects of the surrounding fuel assemblies. Evaluations show that accuracy of the neutron multiplication factor by the SRAC calculation can be improved by the proposed method.     

Plutonium breeding of light water cooled fast reactors

Light water cooled fast reactor with new fuel assemblies (FA) has been studied for high breeding of fissile plutonium. It achieves fissile plutonium surviving ratio (FPSR) of 1.342 (discharge/loading), 1.013 end and beginning of equilibrium cycle (EOEC/BOEC), and compound system doubling time (CSDT) of 95.9 years at the average coolant density of pressurized water reactor (PWR). It is further improved for reduced moderation boiling water reactor (BWR) (RMWR) coolant density. Fissile plutonium surviving ratio reaches 1.397 (discharge/loading), 1.030 (EOEC/BOEC) and CSDT is 37 years. The present study has shown the possibility of breeding at the PWR coolant density and meeting the growth rate of energy demand of advanced countries at the RMWR and Super FR coolant density for the first time. The new FA consist of closely packed fuel rods. The integrity of welding of fuel rods at the top and bottom ends is maintained as the conventional fuel rods. The coolant to fuel volume fraction is reduced to 0.085, one-sixth of that of RMWR. The volume fraction remains unchanged with the diameter of the fuel rod. The thermal hydraulic design of the cores remains for the future study.     

Safety characteristics of the multipurpose fast reactor (MPFR)

The safety characteristics of a long-life multipurpose nuclear reactor (MPFR) with self-sustained liquid metallic fuel and lead coolant, which is proposed to meet the requirements for the energy production in the future, were investigated. The application of liquid plutonium–uranium metallic alloys used as a nuclear fuel demonstrated high potential to reach excellent reactor shutdown characteristics against anticipated transients without scram such as unprotected loss-of-flow and unprotected transient overpower. The calculations indicated that the thermal expansion of liquid fuels would cause the negative reactivity insertion that would be larger in magnitude than any other thermally induced reactivity changes. This created the reactivity balance for the passive shutdown and power stabilization capabilities of the MPFR core. It was found that MPFR satisfies such design characteristics to be a potential candidate providing the replacement of fossil fuels by alternative energy sources in the next century.     

Safety design of Pb–Bi-cooled direct contact boiling water fast reactor (PBWFR)

In Pb–Bi-cooled direct contact boiling water small fast reactor (PBWFR), steam is generated by direct contact of feedwater with primary Pb–Bi coolant above the core, and Pb–Bi coolant is circulated by steam lift pump in chimneys. Safety design has been developed to show safety features of PBWFR. Negative void reactivity is inserted even if whole of the core and upper plenum are voided hypothetically by steam intrusion from above. The control rod ejection due to coolant pressure is prevented using in-vessel type control rod driving mechanism. At coolant leak from reactor vessel and feedwater pipes, Pb–Bi coolant level in the reactor vessel required for decay heat removal is kept using closed guard vessel. Dual pipes for feedwater are employed to avoid leak of water. Although there is no concern of loss of flow accident due to primary pump trip, feedwater pump trip initiates loss of coolant flow (LOF). Injection of high pressure water slows down the flow coast down of feedwater at the LOF event. The unprotected loss of flow and heat sink (ATWS) has been evaluated, which shows that the fuel temperatures are kept lower than the safety limits.     

International Solvent Extraction Conference ISEC ′90

The supercritical-water-cooled power reactor (SCPR) is expected to reduce power costs compared with those of current LWRs because of its high thermal efficiency and simple reactor system. The high thermal efficiency is obtained by supercritical pressure water cooling. The fuel cladding surface temperature increases locally due to a synergistic effect from the increased coolant temperature, the expanded flow deflection due to coolant density change and the decreased heat transfer coefficient, if the coolant flow distribution is non-uniform in the fuel assembly. Therefore, the SCPR fuel assembly is designed using a subchannel analysis code based on the SILFEED code for BWRs.

The SCPR fuel assembly has many square-shaped water rods. The fuel rods are arranged around these water rods. The fuel rod pitch and diameter are 11.2 mm and 10.2 mm, respectively. Since coolant flow distribution in the fuel assembly strongly depends on the gap width between the fuel rod and the water rod, the proper gap width is examined. Subchannel analysis shows that the coolant flow distribution becomes uniform when the gap width is 1.0 mm. The maximum fuel cladding surface temperature is lower than 600°C and the temperature margin of the fuel cladding is increased in the design.     

Gallium-cooled liquid metallic-fueled fast reactor

We have examined the effects on core characteristics of using two different types of Pu-based metallic alloy fuels in the gallium-cooled fast reactor core. In the proposed concept, the liquid metal fast nuclear reactor uses metallic fuel in the liquid phase and gallium coolant at high temperature (inlet 1700K, outlet 1900K). The liquid fuel is continuously supplied to the reactor during operation at full reactor power. The reactor power is controlled by rotational control drums with absorber material. The aim was to evaluate reactor core neutronics and safety characteristics demonstrating a feasibility of the reactor system. Although gallium has large absorption cross section in the high neutron energy region, we can design the core with rather good neutronics performances. The large negative reactivity feedback induced by the thermal expansion of liquid metallic fuel ensures the core's inherent safety against the unprotected loss-of-flow transient.     

Visual Study of Flow Behavior in Upper Plenum during Simulated Reflood Phase of PWR-LOCA

Fuel temperature is an important parameter in reactor safety. However, temperatures of fuel sub-assemblies in power reactors usually cannot be directly measured. A means therefore has been devised to use heat removed by coolant from fuel sub-assemblies following a reactor trip to estimate the pre-trip average fuel temperatures and fuel-to-coolant heat transfer coefficients. Sub-assembly coolant mass flow and outlet temperature measurements are used to determine the heat removed. After accounting for the contribution from release of stored heat from non-fuel components and from decay heat, the contribution due to release of fuel-stored heat alone during the trip transient can be inferred. Average fuel temperatures and fuel-to-coolant heat transfer coefficients of the FBR “MONJU” at 45% thermal power were estimated using this energy balance approach. The trip-test data derived estimates compared favorably with plant simulation code calculated values.     

中国先进研究堆安全设计

中国先进研究堆(CARR)是一座轻水冷却和慢化、重水反射的池内簟式研究堆。额定核功率为60MW。堆芯装载21盒燃料组件,芯体材料为U_3Si_2-Al_x弥散体,包壳材料为6061铝。CARR具有堆芯小、热流密度高和流速高等特点,使得CARR的安全设计难度很大。本文详细介绍了CARK设计中采取的安全措施,如ATWS缓解系统、足够大的主泵转动惯量、足够的自然循环能力和靠UPS供电的随堆运行的应急堆芯冷却系统等。事故分析结果表明,CARR具有很高的固有安全性,采取的安全措施是有效的。     

模块式小型压水堆ATWS典型初因事件研究

未能紧急停堆的预期瞬态(ATWS)典型初因事件的选取在大型压水堆核电厂已形成一套完整的方法。由于模块式小型压水堆的结构和设计特点与大型压水堆核电厂差异较大,其ATWS典型事故选取也有所差异,需结合模块式小型压水堆的特点对其ATWS的典型初因事件进行筛选研究。本文从压水堆标准规范出发,结合核电厂ATWS事故的一般要求,采用RELAP5/MOD3.2程序为分析工具,对模块式小型压水堆Ⅱ类瞬态进行了典型ATWS事故的分析,限制准则为,维持反应堆冷却剂系统压力边界的完整性。结果表明,模块式小型压水堆后果最为严重的ATWS初因事件为失电和控制棒失控抽出两个事故,从而最终确定了此类堆ATWS的典型初因事件,为安全分析报告的编制提供了支持。     

Supercritical-pressure, light-water-cooled reactors for economical nuclear power plants

Design studies of supercritical-pressure light-water-cooled reactors (SCLWRs) have been carried out to pursue drastic improvement of the economy of nuclear power generation. The core is cooled by supercritical water which is superheated without the phase change. The cooling system is a once-through type; the whole core flow is driven by the feedwater pumps and is directly led to the turbine. No recirculation line is necessary. Besides, steam separators and dryers are not needed. Water rods are used to enhance the moderation and to increase the flow velocity around the fuel rods. The radial peaking factor is satisfactorily reduced by controlling uranium enrichment and gadolinia concentration as well as water rods. Flattening of the radial power distribution is important to enhance the thermal efficiency. This can be achieved by the coolant density feedback and the out-in refueling pattern. Orificing is also effective to enhance the thermal efficiency. The thermal efficiency is above 40% with stainless steel cladding. Plant control system and safety system are also designed. The core flow should be directly maintained due to the once-through direct cycle. Plant behaviors of large break LOCAs and loss of offsite power are analyzed. Safety criteria are satisfied in both cases. The feasibility of SCLWR is shown.     

A Linear Stability Analysis of Supercritical Water Reactors, (I)

This paper summarizes the analysis results of the thermal-hydraulic stability of a high-temperature reactor cooled and moderated by supercritical-pressure light water (SCLWR-H). A linear stability analysis code in the frequency domain was developed to study the thermal-hydraulic stability of SCLWR-H at constant supercritical pressure. The analysis method is based on linearization by perturbation of numerically-discretized one-dimensional single-channel single-phase conservation equations. The effect of water rods on stability is considered. The thermal-hydraulic stability of SCLWR-H for full-power and partial-power normal operations was investigated by frequency domain method. Our analysis reveals that though SCLWR-H has low coolant flow rate and large density change in the core, the thermal-hydraulic stability can be maintained both at normal operation and during power raising phase of constant pressure startup by applying an orifice pressure drop coefficient at the inlet of the fuel assemblies. A parametric study was also carried out to determine the parameters affecting the stability.