An Economic Index regarding Market Creation of Products Obtained from Utilization of Radiation and Nuclear Energy (IV)

In modern times, the use of nuclear energy and radiation are inseparable. The size of two wheels can be measured and compared by the term economic scale, which in this case refers to the revenue of electricity at terminal and production costs associated with radiation applications at a factory. The magnitude of nuclear (nuclear energy+radiation) between Japan and the United States of America (the U.S. or U.S.A.) was hereinafter compared for the year 1997. Results obtained are: (1) The economic scale of nuclear use in the U.S. was 158b$ (billion dollars), 119b$ (75%) of which was attributed to radiation applications with a further 39b$ (25%) due to nuclear energy. In the case of Japan, the total of 99b$ was composed of 52b$ (53%) radiation with a further 47b$ (47%) on nuclear energy. (2) The economic scale for nuclear use in the U.S. is larger than that of Japan by a factor of 1.6, due primarily to its larger economic scale of industry and medicine. The economic scale of nuclear energy in the U.S. is relatively smaller than that for Japan. The U.S. as opposed to Japan, which depends highly on nuclear energy, depends more highly on the use of coals for power generation. This in itself is the main reason for the smaller economic scale of nuclear energy in the U.S.     

Economic Scale of Utilization of Radiation (II): Agriculture

The economic scale of the application of radiation in the field of agriculture in Japan was estimated from public documents to be about 964M$ (million dollars) in 1997. In the food irradiation, an amount of 15,000t of potatoes irradiated per year in Hokkaido was estimated to be worth 16M$. Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) used for combating losses due to the melon fly in the mainly Okinawa region produced as much as 70M$ in benefits. Production of rice using varieties developed by mutation breeding was about 3% of overall production in Japan and the economic scale was 774M$. Radioisotope (RI) utilized in laboratory work, environmental analysis and chronology was accounted to be as high as 24M$. The relative ratios of radiation processing (136M$), mutation breeding (804M$) and RI utilization (24M$) were 14%, 83%, and 3%, respectively. The economic scale surveys in food irradiation and mutation breeding were extended to the United States of America (hereinafter abbreviated as U.S.A. or U.S.) for a direct comparison to the situation in Japan. As to maximum estimation, it amounted to be 3.2b$ (billion dollars) for food irradiation and 11.2b$ for mutation breeding. The economic scale for agriculture products within our scope was 14.5b$ for the U.S. and about 0.8b$ for Japan, implying that the former is larger in magnitude by a factor of about 18.     

Economic Scale of Utilization of Radiation (I): Industry Comparison between Japan and the U.S.A

Utilization of radiation in the industrial field has been enlarged due to the variety of technologies. In the present paper, the economic scale between the U.S.A. and Japan is compared with selected industrial parameters such as sterilization, semiconductors, radiographic testing (RT) and radial tire production because the very large industrial markets make a whole comparison difficult. The economic scale revealed was about 56b$ (1$=121¥) for the U.S.A. and 39b$ for Japan. The former is large in magnitude by a factor of 1.4. With respect to the relative ratio versus the GDP, the former was 0.7% and 0.9% for the latter. This implied that utilization of radiation in industry is large in magnitude and is expected to be further developed. Regarding electron beam (EB) accelerators, for example, 648 units were installed in North America and 308 units for Japan during the past 29 years. The large number of the former is attributed to use in curing and heat shrinkable tubes (film).     

Economic Impacts on the United States of Siting Decisions for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

This paper presents the results of a study that examines and compares the probable short-term economic impacts of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) on the United States (U.S.) if (1) ITER were to be sited in the U.S., or (2) ITER were to be sited in one of the other countries that, along with the U.S., is currently participating in the ITER program. Life-cycle costs associated with ITER construction, operation, and decommissioning are analyzed to assess their economic impact. A number of possible U.S. host and U.S. non-host technology and cost-sharing arrangements with the other ITER Parties are examined, although cost-sharing arrangements and the process by which the Parties will select a host country and an ITER site remain open issues. Both national and local/regional economic impacts, as measured by gross domestic product, regional output, employment, net exports, and income, are considered. These impacts represent a portion of the complex, interrelated set of economic considerations that characterize U.S. host and U.S. non-host participation in ITER. A number of other potentially important economic and noneconomic considerations are discussed qualitatively.     

国外核燃料工厂核临界事故的经验教训

本文通过对美、英、俄罗斯（前苏联）及日本的核燃料工厂已发生并公开报道的22起核临界事故及美国的一起未遂核临界事故的原因分析，从对核临界事故的认识，核燃料工厂的设计、运行管理和事故的紧急处理以及管理部门的审管方面，分析了我们应该吸取的主要经验教训。     

Future directions in boiling water reactor design

The Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR) is being developed by an international team of BWR manufacturers to respond to worldwide utility needs in the 1990s. Major objectives of the ABWR program are design simplification; improved safety and reliability; reduced construction, fuel and operating costs; improved maneuverability; and reduced occupational exposure and radwaste.The ABWR incorporates the best proved features from BWR designs in Europe, Japan, and the United States and application of leading edge technology. Key features of the ABWR are internal recirculation pumps; fine-motion, electro-hydraulic control rod drives; digital control and instrumentation; multiplexed, fiber optic cabling network; pressure suppression containment with horizontal vents; cylindrical reinforced concrete containment; structural integration of the containment and reactor building; severe accident capability; state-of-the-art fuel; advanced turbine/generator with 52 in. last stage buckets; and advanced radwaste technology.The ABWR is being developed as the next generation Japan standard BWR under the guidance and leadership of the Tokyo Electric Power Company, Inc. and a group of Japanese BWR utilities. During 1987, the Tokyo Electric Power Company, Inc. announced its decision to proceed with two ABWR units at its Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Station, with commercial operation of the first unit in 1996 and the second unit in 1998. The units will be supplied by a joint venture of General Electric, Hitachi and Toshiba, with General Electric selected to supply the nuclear steam supply systems, fuel and turbine/generators. In the United States it is being adapted to the needs of U.S. utilities through the Electric Power Research Institute's Advanced LWR Requirements Program, and is being reviewed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission for certification as a preapproved U.S. Standard BWR under the U.S. Department of Energy's ALWR Design Verification Program. These cooperative Japanese and U.S. Programs are expected to establish the ABWR as a world class BWR for the 1990s.International cooperative efforts are also underway aimed at development of a simplified BWR employing natural circulation and passive safety systems. This BWR concept, while only in the conceptual design stage, shows significant technical and economic promise.     

Two-phase flow phenomena in full-scale reactor geometry

For the investigation of two-phase flow phenomena in full scale reactor geometry, a series of experiments were carried out at the Upper Plenum Test Facility UPTF, which represents the primary system of a 1300 MWe Pressurized Water Reactor with upper plenum, downcomer and primary main coolant pipes in 1:1 reactor scale.UPTF was the German contribution to the international 2D/3D project established by the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI), the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC) of the United States of America, and the Federal Ministry for Research and Technology (BMFT) of the Federal Republic of Germany.Large scale findings of the UPTF tests, related to two-phase flow phenomena in the downcomer, in the upper plenum, at the upper core tie plate, and in the main coolant pipes, will be discussed. The application of the UPTF test results for the validation of analytical models will be demonstrated.     

Radiochemical Determination of Fission Rate in JRR-4

The fission rate in the core of the Japan Research Reactor 4 (JRR-4) was determined by a method based on radiochemical analysis of ⁹⁹Mo formed in the U samples irradiated in the reactor core.

The contribution of epithermal neutron fission to the total fission rate was evaluated from the Cd ratio for U fission. The contribution was several percent.

For comparison, the thermal neutron flux also was measured, by Au-foil activation. The fission rate determined from the U samples agreed well with the Au-foil data, except at positions in the peripheral region of the reactor core.     

Qualification Tests for a Type B(U) Package

Abstract

The primary objective for the safety of radioactive materials transport is to protect human health and the environment taking into consideration its potential risks and radiological consequences. Romania as a Member State of the International Atomic Energy Agency hasimplemented national regulations for the safe transport of radioactive materials in accordance with the Agency's recommendations as well as other international specialisedorganisations. The paper will describe the qualification tests performed for a Type B(U) package, intended to be used for the transport of the radioactive sources ²⁴¹Am and ¹³⁷Cs. For this kind of package the tests were performed for the first time inRomania and include: the water spray test, the 1.2 m free drop test, the stacking test, the penetration test, the 9 m free drop test, the thermal test and the submersion under a head of water of at least 15 m. The test facilities used for performing qualification tests for the Type B(U) package as well as experience and conclusions will be also presented.     

Fusion and Energy Policy

Presentations from a Fusion Power Associates symposium, Fusion and Energy Policy, are summarized. The topics include an overview of U.S. Department of Energy policies, fusion strategies in Europe and Japan, plans for U.S. participation in the construction of ITER, status of construction of the National Ignition Facility and recent progress in all aspects of magnetic and inertial fusion.     

The fourth generation of nuclear power

The outlook for nuclear power in the U.S. is currently very bright. The economics, operations and safety performance of U.S. nuclear power plants is excellent. In addition, both the safety and economic regulation of nuclear power are being changed to produce better economic parameters for future nuclear plant operations and the licenses for plant operations are being extended to 60 years. There is further a growing awareness of the value of clean, emissions-free nuclear power. These parameters combine to form a firm foundation for continued successful U.S. nuclear plant operations, and even the potential for new plant construction.     

Lotung large-scale seismic experiment and soil-structure interaction method validation

This paper describes the Electric Power Research Institute's (EPRI) current on-site large-scale soil-structure interaction (SSI) research. The objectives of the research are: (1) to obtain an earthquake database which can be used to substantiate SSI models and analysis methods; (2) to develop realistic SSI analysis guidelines and procedures based on experimental-analytical correlation; and (3) to quantify nuclear power plant reactor containment and internal component's seismic margin based on earthquake experience data.To meet the objectives, two model structures were sited in a high seismic region, Lotung, Taiwan, under the joint sponsorship of EPRI and the Taiwan Power Company (Taipower). The model structures which simulate scaled-down nuclear containments ( ) were constructed and instrumented within an existing strong motion array (SMART-1) deployed by U.C. Berkeley under a U.S. National Science Foundation grant. The instrumentation layout associated with the model structures included accelerometers on the models, on the internal components, on the ground surface, and in the ground. These instrumentations are to provide information required for validation and qualification of SSI models. Between September 1985 and November 1986, 18 earthquakes ranging from Richter magnitude 4.5 to 7.0 were recorded.The analysis phase of the research was conducted with the cooperation of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and Taipower. A round-robin approach was utilized with emphasis on blind predictions and independent assessment of existing methodologies. A total of 13 research teams from the United States, the Republic of China, Japan, and Switzerland participated in the effort. A workshop was held in December 1987 where research results and findings were presented. Further effort is ongoing to synthesize the results and findings for providing technical bases of developing improved SSI analyses guidelines and procedures.     

Opportunities in the Construction Phase of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

Since 1992, fusion researchers from the U.S., Japan, Europe, Russia, and other countries, have been engaged in a very successful collaboration on the engineering design activities (EDA) of the world's first fusion experimental reactor (ITER). Decisions on whether and where to construct this 1500 MWth, $10 billion facility are scheduled to be made by July 1998. The United States, for budgetary reasons, is faltering in its commitment to fusion development, and thus risks not being involved as a full partner when ITER is built and the long-sought goal of fusion energy is achieved. In this paper, we examine, from the point of view of U.S. industry, the issues and opportunities presented by this historic venture.     

Development of the Water Cooled Ceramic Breeder Test Blanket Module in Japan

The development of a Water Cooled Ceramic Breeder (WCCB) Test Blanket Module (TBM) is being performed as one of the most important steps toward DEMO blanket in Japan. For the TBM testing and evaluation toward DEMO blanket, the module fabrication technology development by a candidate structural material, reduced activation martensitic/ferritic steel, F82H, is one of the most critical items from the viewpoint of realization of TBM testing in ITER. In Japan, fabrication of a real scale first wall, side walls, a breeder pebble bed box and assembling of the first wall and side walls have succeeded. Recently, the real scale partial mockup of the back wall was fabricated. The fabrication procedure of the back wall, whose thickness is up to 90 mm, was confirmed toward the fabrication of the real scale back wall by F82H. Important key technologies are almost clarified for the fabrication of the real scale TBM module mockup. From the view point of testing and evaluation, development of the technology of the blanket tritium recovery, development of advanced breeder and multiplier pebbles and the development of the blanket neutronics measurement technology are also performed. Also, tritium production and recovery test using D-T neutron in the Fusion Neutronics Source (FNS) facility has been started as the verification test of tritium production performance. This paper overviews the recent achievements of the development of the WCCB TBM in Japan.     

Compact Stellarators

Stellarators offer advantages for reactors, namely the potential for steady state operation with low recirculating power (high engineering Q) and without disruptions. A substantial portion of the world fusion program is devoted to the development of stellarators as a magnetic confinement system. The world stellarator program, as it currently exists, is focused on high-aspect-ratio (R/a = 5 ? 11) designs that lead to very large reactors. For example the German advanced stellarator reactor design HSR has an aspect ratio of 12 and a major radius of 22 m. An important issue for stellarator research is whether more compact reactor designs are possible. Could the advantage of stellarators also be realized at dimensions and performance levels closer to those of the advanced tokamak reactor ARIES-RS (R = 5.5 m, neutron wall load of 4 MW/m2)? Theory has identified a class of “compact stellarator” plasma configurations that could be the basis for such a design. They are promising, but need to be studied experimentally in order to realistically assess their potential. The most cost-effective way to accomplish this is to carry out the compact stellarator proof-of-principle program that has been proposed by the U.S. stellarator community. This program would answer the basic physics questions for compact stellarators and make important contributions to the world stellarator knowledge base at a cost (about $30M/year) that is modest compared to expenditures for stellarator and tokamak research world-wide.     

Overview of the Preliminary Safety Analysis of the National Ignition Facility

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) is a proposed U.S. Department of Energy inertial confinement laser fusion facility. The candidate sites for locating the NIF are: Los Alamos National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratory, New Mexico, the Nevada Test Site, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), the preferred site. The NIF will operate by focusing 192 individual laser beams onto a tiny deuterium-tritium target located at the center of a spherical target chamber. The NIF has been classified as a low hazard, radiological facility on the basis of a preliminary hazards analysis and according to the DOE methodology for facility classification. This requires that a safety analysis report be prepared under DOE Order 5481.1B, Safety Analysis and Review System. A Preliminary Safety Analysis Report (PSAR) has been approved, which documents and evaluates the safety issues associated with the construction, operation, and decommissioning of the NIF.     

Economic aspects of the development of nuclear power and fuel cycle plants in the USSR

Conclusion Plutonium breeding in fast reactors themselves will not have any significant effect in the next 20–25 years on growth rate of the capacity of nuclear power stations with fast reactors.The character of the distribution of the capital expenditures on nuclear power stations and on the fuel cycle shows that the bulk of the expenditures is spent on the construction of the nuclear power stations and only 20% on the development of the fuel-cycle plants. For this reason, greatest savings of capital expenditure are given by a reduction in the construction costs of nuclear power stations by means of improvements in the design and of the reactor and the thermal and mechanical equipment of the plant.In the fuel cycle the biggest economic effect is produced by measures that lead to a reduction in the specific consumption of natural uranium since the capital expenditure on the mining operations constitutes about one-half of the total capital expenditures on the fuel cycle. The natural uranium costs also make up roughly one-half of the fuel component of the cost of electricity generated by a nuclear power station. As the price of uranium rises, this fraction of costs will also increase.Translated from Atomnaya Énergiya, Vol. 43, No. 5, pp. 365–369, November, 1977.     

ARCON96程序理论模型分析

大气弥散因子是评价核电厂控制室可居留性的重要参数,美国核管理委员会采用ARCON96程序评估该参数。对ARCON96程序的基本原理及主要理论模型进行分析,并以安全壳表面释放情况为例,对程序中的面源释放扩散模型开展敏感性分析。为ARCON96程序的科学使用提供建议,保障计算的合理性。     

The status of the Canadian nuclear power program and possible future strategies

Canada is fortunate in having developed a versatile and flexible power reactor concept—one which can be kept economically competitive into the distant future, while at the same time offering opportunities for large reductions in uranium requirements. The one CANDU concept provides a range of alternatives, at least as extensive in terms of adaptation to changing economic and uranium supply conditions as that of most other nuclear power programs consisting of two or more distinct reactor types.The range includes reduced capital costs through use of boiling light water and organic cooled options, better thermal efficiency through use of the organic cooled option, and the ability to minimize the impact of changing economic parameters and improve uranium utilization through use of Pu recycle and/or thorium fuel with uranium recycle.AECL has devoted considerable effort over the last few years to study of advanced fuel cycles in the various CANDU reactor types. Very few feasibility questions have been uncovered.A detailed conceptual study of our currently favoured vehicle for Pu recycle, CANDU-BLW (PB), a plutonium burning, boiling light water cooled CANDU, has indicated that it could be initiated with no major problems. Development would be required in a number of areas—notably, fuel design and computational methods for fuel management. The results indicate a savings of some 15–20% in plant capital costs over the natural uranium CANDU-PHW and a reduction of almost a factor of two in uranium requirements.More general studies of thorium fuelled concepts are also encouraging. The reactor designs are almost identical to those for uranium CANDU reactors and so no new feasibility problems are introduced. We recognize feasibility problems associated with specific fuels in specific CANDU types, but there appear to be none in the areas of reactor physics, control, safety and fuel management. These concepts are competitive with CANDU-PHWs even for current economic conditions over a fairly wide range of reprocessing costs and/or separative work cost. Increasing uranium prices tend to favour the thorium fuelled reactors. The uranium requirements as a function of time depend on system growth rate but for any reasonable values the saving is at least a factor of two. As the growth rate slows this factor increases. In fact we envisage the possibility of thorium cycles with uranium recycle, which are self sufficient at equilibrium. This means a limited natural uranium requirement to establish and maintain a given electrical capacity. Requirements as low as 1 Mg (natural uranium)/MWe seem possible. We are currently studying these self-sufficient thorium cycles in more detail.We feel that the question is not so much whether the CANDU concept can be adapted to suit any particular set of economic and uranium supply conditions, but rather one of matching and timing. A large amount of work is required to determine the best system to match a given set of economic conditions or, with more difficulty, a given uncertainty band of economic conditions. The substantial time delays associated with any major adaptation make anticipation of future economic conditions important. Indeed at any time, the best system to design and build may be one which can be used with a variety of fuels rather than the optimum system for any one fuel. In order to capitalize on our present enviable position we will have to keep on top of these problems.In the U.S. the study of strategies for various plausible scenarios is important for long term planning, to provide a basis for decisions on types of reactors to develop. For Canada such studies are important for long term planning of development programs but will also likely be important for determining optimum operation of facilities.Some of the initial work detailing what I have been saying appears in our paper. The time seems ripe for serious consideration of Pu recycle and use of thorium, and yet in Canada there seems to be no need for undue haste in implementing these. Therefore we can contemplate an orderly research and development program which will put us in a position to adopt one or more of the many options in 10–20 yr time.Since our major uncertainties are in the areas of fuel reprocessing and active fuel fabrication these will be an important part of this program.It is not clear how our experience relates to U.S. problems. Certainly there are many conditions which are quite different in the two countries. The two most important are:

1. (i) We have developed heavy water power reactors and the U.S. has not.

2. (ii) The U.S. has a fast breeder program and we do not.

I would like to stress the fact though that we really believe our program is a fully valid alternative (at least for us).We are quite willing then to explore with you the question of whether Canadian experience has any pertinence to problems associated with the U.S. nuclear power program.     

Possible Pathways for Pursuing Burning Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Development

This report has been prepared in response to a request from the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Office of Fusion Energy Sciences to consider possible alternatives on reduced cost options for next-step devices. A central focus of next-step devices is the study of burning plasmas, which explore the impact of substantial fusion energy production via the deuterium-tritium reaction.An important part of the U.S. Fusion Energy Sciences Program is its participation in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) program. Taking into account the international situation and U.S. domestic issues, the ITER process is exploring reduced-cost options to the present ITER device. A Special Working Group, reporting to the ITER Council, has been formed to explore these issues on behalf of the ITER Parties, i.e., the European Union, Russian Federation, Japan, and the United States. This report and its related activities will aid the United States in the international process.This report is the result of a broad-based U.S. community effort to discuss, debate, and work together on the crucial issues involved in considering next-step options. The main content of this report is based on three potential pathways identified at a broadly attended community Forum for Next-Step Fusion Experiments (University of Wisconsin, Madison, April 1998) organized principally by the University Fusion Association and by the work of the ITER Steering Committee—US (ISCUS) on reduced cost ITER options. The Madison Workshop was followed by a smaller Workshop on Next-Step Options (University of California, San Diego, June 1998) to focus on preparing this report. A broadly-announced Website was established to facilitate access to documents related to this process.