Levels of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in food of animal origin in the Netherlands during the period 2001–2011

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to assess levels of dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (DL-PCBs) in food of animal origin produced in the Netherlands, including potential trends in time. Test results from about 2500 samples of animal derived food products (beef, veal, lamb, chicken, pork, deer, milk and eggs), sampled for the National Residue Monitoring Plan from 2001–2011, were evaluated. Most samples were screened with a bioassay and, if suspected, analysed by GC-HRMS. The fraction of samples which were non-compliant with European maximum levels was rather low, being below 1% for most food products, except for lamb. Exceedance of action levels was particularly observed for lamb and beef. To obtain an insight into background levels, a randomly taken part of the samples was directly analysed by GC-HRMS. In general, only minor decreases in mean PCDD/F and DL-PCB concentrations could be observed for the period 2001–2011. This may be due to a plateauing of current background levels but also to factors like the sensitivity of the analytical method.     

Development and validation of a new LC–MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of six major ergot alkaloids and their corresponding epimers. Application to some food and feed commodities

A liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of six major ergot alkaloids, ergometrine, ergosine, ergotamine, ergocornine, ergokryptine and ergocristine, as well as their corresponding epimers in food and feed samples. The method involves extraction under alkaline conditions and subsequent clean-up by applying a simple and rapid liquid–liquid partitioning procedure prior to LC–MS/MS analysis. Evaluation of the method revealed good linearity, accuracy and precision. The limits of quantification varied from 0.1 to 1 μg/kg depending on the analyte and matrix. The average extraction and clean-up recoveries in different matrices were between 45 (only for ergometrine in biscuit) and 90%. The uncertainty associated with the analytical method was not higher than 51% and 30%, at concentration levels of 2.5 and 150 μg/kg respectively. Analyte epimerization proved to be minimal during the analytical procedure. The method has been successfully applied to the determination of ergot alkaloids in some Belgian food and feed commodities. Ergot alkaloids were found in 104 out of 122 samples investigated. Ergosine was the most frequently occurring alkaloid, while the highest levels were observed for ergotamine, ergocristine or ergosine, depending on the product type. The total alkaloid content in positive samples varied from 1 to 1145 μg/kg.     

Concentrations of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in feed materials in the Netherlands, 2001–11

This study aimed to obtain insights into contamination of feed materials used in the Netherlands with dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Monitoring results from the period 2001–11, covering in total 4938 samples, were statistically analysed and evaluated against the statutory limits set at the beginning or during this period. The percentage of samples exceeding maximum levels set within the European Union for either dioxins or the sum of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs were below 1% for most feed categories, except for fish meal (4.1%), clay minerals (binders and anti-caking agents) (3.4%), and vegetable oils and byproducts (1.7%). For most feed categories, non-compliance with the action threshold (roughly 33% lower than maximum levels) for either dioxins or dioxin-like PCBs was up to three times higher than non-compliance with the respective maximum levels. Exceedance of action thresholds was just above 1% for animal fat, pre-mixtures and feed materials of plant origin excluding vegetable oils. For the categories fish meal, clay minerals, and vegetable oils and byproducts, the action thresholds were exceeded by 5.0%, 9.8% and 3.0% of the samples, respectively. In general, the percentages of samples that exceeded the action thresholds and maximum levels were lower than those reported for the European Union by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). In most of the feed materials, there seems to be a decreasing trend in concentrations of dioxins or dioxin-like PCBs over the years. However, a lowering of the limits of quantification during this period and the low concentrations in most samples precludes drawing strong conclusions.     

Comparison of headspace-SPME-GC–MS and LC–MS for the detection and quantification of coumarin,vanillin, and ethyl vanillin in vanilla extract products

A headspace-solid phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) GC–MS method has been developed for the determination of coumarin, vanillin and ethyl vanillin in vanilla products. Limits of detection ranged from 1.33 to 13.2 ng mL⁻¹. Accuracy and precision data for the method were measured and compared to those obtained using LC-ESI-MS. A survey of 24 commercially available vanilla products was completed using both techniques. No coumarin was detected in any of the samples. Examination of the GC–MS chromatograms revealed the presence of 18 other flavor related compounds in the samples. The method validation and sample analysis data using HS-SPME-GC–MS were comparable to those obtained using the LC–MS method. Because the two methods are conceptually different from one another, both methods would not be subject to the same interferences. This would allow them to be used as confirmatory methods for each other.     

Acceptance and willingness to pay for health-enhancing bakery products – Empirical evidence for young urban Russian consumers

Our study provides first empirical evidence on young Russian consumers’ attitudes towards novel functional bakery products. We employ two different bakery products, namely bread rolls and biscuits, in our experimental auctions. Both products are derived from purple wheat, an old wheat variety that is naturally rich in anthocyanins (ACNs). ACNs are assumed to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic and ocular-health-enhancing properties. Participants are 207 students aged 18–30 years from Moscow and Irkutsk. Our results indicate a low level of knowledge about ACNs among participants. However, our results also show that in the presence of information about the health-enhancing characteristics most participants value these products over base products. Our findings also reinforce the idea that the base product matters. Purple wheat bread rolls were better accepted than purple wheat biscuits. Moreover, our results also highlight that the information strategy matters. Participants in our study exhibited a higher willingness to pay for purple wheat biscuits under an old variety information scenario in comparison to an anthocyanin information scenario. Moreover, while our results indicate no significant difference in the perception of the anthocyanin attribute between the two cities, the perception of old grain variety products was slightly different. The share of respondents considering old variety products as healthy was significantly higher in Irkutsk, whereas the share of respondents considering these products as exclusive was significantly higher in Moscow. Thus, while planning future marketing strategies such differences in underlying motives should be taken into account.     

Survey of sulfites in wine and various Turkish food and food products intended for export, 2007–2010

Surveys were carried out between 2007 and 2010 to determine the total levels of sulfites in 1245 samples of wines, dried apricots, dried vegetables, nuts, juices and purees, frozen foods and cereals containing dried fruit supplied by food inspectors and by food producers for testing or for export certification. Sulfite analysis of wine was carried out using the Ripper method with an LOQ of 5?mg?l^?1 and for dried and other foods the Monier-Williams distillation procedure was employed with an LOQ of 10?mg?kg^?1. In the survey all wines contained measurable sulfites, but with the exception of one sample of white wine they were otherwise below Turkish Food Codex limits of 160?mg?kg^?1 for red wine, 210?mg?kg^?1 to white wine and 235?mg?kg^?1 for sparkling wine. None of the cereal products, frozen foods, juices or purees contained sulfites above 10?mg?kg^?1. However, all dried apricot samples contained significant levels of sulfite with around 40% having levels exceeding the Turkish limit of 2000?mg?kg^?1. Significant levels of sulfite were found in other samples of dried fruit with even a fruit and nut bar containing 1395?mg?kg^?1 of sulfite, suggesting the dried fruit ingredients contained levels above regulatory limits.     

Occurrence and intake of deoxynivalenol in cereal-based products marketed in Korea during 2007–2008

The occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON) was investigated in 514 cereal-based products (corn-based, n = 125; barley-based, n = 96; wheat-based, n = 94; rice-based, n = 199) marketed in Korea during 2007?2008, and estimates of DON intake were determined. Samples were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet light (UV) detection after immunoaffinity clean-up. The limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) were 2.2 and 5.6 µg kg^–1, respectively. Recoveries and repeatability expressed as coefficients of variation (CV) were 82.3–100% and 2.4–15.3% in beer, bread and dried corn. The incidences and mean levels of DON were 56% and 68.9 µg kg^?1 for corn-based products, 49% and 24.1 µg kg^?1 for wheat-based products, 43% and 7.5 µg kg^?1 for barley-based products, and 16% and 3.4 µg kg^?1 for rice-based products, respectively. The estimated daily intake of DON from the consumption of rice-based, wheat-based, barley-based and corn-based products were 0.0038 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 0.0032 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 0.0015 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 and 0.0002 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. These values represent 0.38%, 0.32%, 0.25% and 0.01% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. These results indicate that rice-based products are major contributors to DON exposure in Korea, even though the current exposure level is unlikely to cause adverse health effects.     

Mothers’ considerations in snack choice for their children: Differences between the North and the South of Italy

This study describes differences in considerations and value conflicts between mothers living in the North and the South of Italy during snack provision to their 2–7 years old children. Semi-structured interviews with 20 mothers living in the North and 20 mothers living in the South of Italy were conducted. Participants matched on educational level and weight status. Mothers’ considerations in snack provision were grouped into four key themes: health-related, child-related, time-related, and product-related. North Italian mothers showed more health-related considerations while providing a snack compared to mothers living in the South. In case mothers from the South mentioned healthiness as a consideration, it was often related to giving energy. The child-related key theme revealed that a snack needs to be liked by the child, otherwise Italian mothers do not provide it. For the time-related key theme, differences were small between North and South Italian mothers. The product-related key theme showed the brand to be more important for South Italian mothers. Mothers from the North of Italy experienced more value conflicts, all related to health. The current studied showed that even within the same country, geographical differences in mothers’ considerations and value conflicts for providing snacks exist. This implies that snack choice, considerations and values seem to be influenced by tradition and family culture.     

Development of a genetic method for the identification of salmon,trout, and bream in seafood products by means of PCR–RFLP and FINS methodologies

In the present study, two alternative methods for identifying 13 salmon, trout and bream species were developed. Both of them are based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of a cytochrome b gene fragment. Subsequently, different techniques were assayed to assign the PCR amplicons previously obtained to particular species. The first one is based on the restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and includes three endonucleases for generating species-specific restriction profiles, while the second one is based on the phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences. The main novelty of this work lies in the applicability of the developed methods to all kinds of processed products, including those undergoing intensive processes of transformation, as for instance canned foods. Finally, the methods were applied to 25 commercial samples including some that had been subjected to intensive thermal treatment, allowing the detection of those incorrectly labeled (16%). Therefore, these methods are useful to check the fulfillment of labeling regulations for seafood products, verify the correct traceability in commercial trade, and for fisheries control.     

Sequential extraction combined with HPLC–ICP-MS for As speciation in dry seafood products

A sequential extraction procedure followed by HPLC–ICP-MS analysis was developed for the speciation and quantization of arsenic species in dry seafood products (DSPs). The extraction process involved three major steps, which produced respectively three As fractions: non-polar (As_nonpolar), polar (As_polar) and inorganic arsenic species (As_inorganic). The extraction efficiency (EE%) is in the range of 87–115%. As_nonpolar is 0.6–10.2% of total arsenic in DSPs, which is served as the index of level of arsenolipid. For As_polar and As_inorganic, a hyphenated HPLC–ICP-MS technique was established for the separation and quantification of six arsenic species including arsenobetaine (AsB), arsenocholine (AsC), arsenite (AsIII), arsenate (AsV), monomethylarsonic acid (MMA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA). The results indicate that AsB and AsV are the two dominate species in DSPs, while all other species are present in relatively low concentrations. The recovery efficiency of 77–02.8% could be obtained with spike recovery test in this two-steps extraction.     

A validated GC–MS method for the detection of tropane alkaloids in buckwheat (Fagopyron esculentum L.) fruits,flours and commercial foods

A novel analytical method was developed and validated for the rapid and simultaneous detection of toxic tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine) in commercial buckwheat (Fagopyron esculentum Moench.) samples and related food products, using gas-chromatography–mass-spectrometry in single-ion mode. A suitable and tailored protocol for extraction, sample clean-up and derivatization was set up in order to maximise recoveries and detection limits. The limits of detection for atropine and scopolamine were found to be 0.3 and 1 μg/kg, respectively, while limits of quantitation were obtained at 1 and 6 μg/kg, respectively, corresponding approximately to less than one Datura stramonium seed per million of buckweed fruits, a ratio accepted by the European law on animal nutrition. The established method is considered suitable for the routine determination of traces of tropane alkaloids in flour or other buckwheat products for food and feed purpose and was applied to a variety of commercial samples and buckwheat-derived food products (pasta, porridge, crackers, and flakes). The protocol may be enforceable to other potential food and feed contaminants from the Datura genus (D. innoxia, D. ferox).     

Are questionnaires the best way to measure emotions for food products and beverages?

There is a growing awareness in the field of consumer and sensory research to include emotional measurements when evaluating food products and beverages. The present paper provides an overview of the recent measures used for emotional measurements within the context of food products and beverages. Further, it discusses to what extent questionnaires might be the best measurement to capture consumer’s emotions in the field of food science by focusing on three aspects of emotion measurement, namely (i) what do we want to measure, (ii) how do we measure it and (iii) what is the added value of the measurement.     

Evaluation of a GC–MS method for benzyl chloride content in processed food,meats, and marine products distributed in Korea

Food Science and Biotechnology - Benzyl chloride is a harmful chemical that contaminates air, water, and food. A static headspace GC–MS method for determining benzyl chloride in food was...     

Co-occurrence of type A and B trichothecenes and zearalenone in wheat grown in northern Italy over the years 2009–2011

The occurrence of the most widespread type A and B trichothecenes and of zearalenone was surveyed in soft and durum wheat produced in northern Italy. A total of 293 wheat fields, grown in the years 2009–2011, were surveyed; for each field, weather and cropping system data were collected. The results indicated a high deoxynivalenol incidence, with durum always more contaminated than soft wheat; in 2010, the percentage of durum wheat samples exceeding the European Commission legal limit was 39.6%. As regards type A trichothecenes, widespread contamination was observed in 2010. In soft wheat, an incidence of 70% and 85% was found for T-2 and HT-2 toxins, respectively; all the durum wheat samples were contaminated. The trichothecene contamination was affected by weather conditions; copious rainfall and high relative humidity (RH) during flowering occurred in 2010, when the highest contamination of both type A and B trichothecenes was found.     

HPLC–ESI-MS investigation of tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol oxidation products in virgin olive oil

The aim of this research is the characterisation of the oxidation products of several hydrophilic phenols of virgin olive oil (VOO), such as hydroxytyrosol (3,4-DHPEA) and tyrosol (p-HPEA) and, their identification in the product during storage. This work is aimed at finding analytical indicators that can be used both as molecular markers of VOO “freshness” and for the evaluation of the shelf life of the product itself. Two oxidation systems were examined for the oxidation of p-HPEA and 3,4-DHPEA: enzymatic oxidation and Fenton oxidation. Reaction products were different for the two systems and were identified as quinones, dimers, and acids. During the autoxidation process, Fenton reaction oxidation products, but not enzymatic oxidation products, were found in VOO.