The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Trait version: structure and content re-examined

Although the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) is a popular measure of anxiety, some previous research suggests that the trait scale may assess depression, as well as anxiety. The factor structure of the trait items was initially examined using factor analytic procedures. Confirmatory factor analytic methods suggested that a hierarchical solution best fit the data, with one overall factor and two lower order factors. The lower order subscales created from this factor solution were examined in a sample of individuals diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. Overall, the results offered good support for the notion that the trait scale of the STAI assesses depression, as well as anxiety. One set of items appeared to assess anxiety and worry, whereas the other assessed sadness and self-deprecation. The two subscales correlated differentially with other measures of anxiety and depression in a manner that was consistent with their content. Finally, diagnostic groups and controls could be meaningfully distinguished on these subscales. Implications for the use of this measure are discussed.     

A new, more powerful approach to multitrait-multimethod analyses: Application of second-order confirmatory factor analysis.

The advantages of applying confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to multitrait–multimethod (MTMM) data are widely recognized. However, because CFA, as traditionally applied to MTMM data, incorporates single indicators of each scale (i.e., each trait–method combination), important weaknesses are the failure to (a) correct appropriately for measurement error in scale scores, (b) separate error due to low internal consistency from uniqueness due to weak trait or method effects, (c) test whether items or subscales accurately reflect the intended factor structure, and (d) test for correlated uniquenesses. However, when the analysis begins with multiple indicators of each scale (i.e., items or subscales), second-order factor analysis can be used to address each of these problems. In this approach, first-order factors defined by multiple items or subscales are posited for each scale, and the method and trait factors are posited as second-order factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Women's knowledge about breast cancer. Dimensions of knowledge and scale development

Evidence suggests that knowledge about breast cancer may influence secondary prevention, care-seeking behavior, and participation in treatment decision-making. Yet few standardized measures of breast cancer knowledge are in existence. Using factor analysis, this paper describes the structure of women's knowledge about breast cancer and uses that structure to develop a measurement scale. Principal axis factoring and varimax rotation yielded a nine factor solution, which accounted for 59.3% of the common variance. Interpretation of the conceptual structure of these factors suggests that knowledge is organized around breast cancer treatment, misconceptions, risk factors, symptoms, menstruation, and prevalence. Considering only those items with factor loadings of .35 and greater, and including only those factors containing three or more items, a 16-item scale, which included four factor-based subscales covering knowledge about breast cancer treatment, misconceptions, risks, and symptoms was developed. Internal consistency reliability of the total scale and of the four subscales was high (alphas = .76-.95). Using chi square analysis, it was found that levels of knowledge on the total scale and on the treatment and symptom subscales are associated with age, education, income, and history of breast cancer. Knowledge on the misconceptions subscale was associated with age, education, and income. Knowledge on the risks subscale was associated with age and education. Issues of reliability and validity of the scale as well as directions for future research in this area are discussed.     

The effects of cytotoxic entorhinal lesions and electrolytic medial septal lesions on the acquisition and retention of a spatial working memory task

This study assesses how social desirability affects responses in clinical self-report inventories. Six hundred items gathered from four normal personality questionnaires were adapted to devise a pre-experimental personality questionnaire (pre-EMHQ). Results obtained from administering Ko's Mental Health Questionnaire (KMHQ) and the pre-EMHQ to separate samples were the proportion of individuals answering "true" to each item (i.e., P(t)) and the social desirability scale value (i.e., SDSV) of each item. The Experimental Mental Health Questionnaire (EMHQ) was established from the pre-EMHQ by closely matching the P(t)s and the SDSVs of the two questionnaires. Administering the KMHQ and the EMHQ concurrently to another sample provided results for factor analysis and other statistical analyses. The SDSVs and the P(t)s for each of the KMHQ items certainly displayed a linearly increasing relation. The two sets of corresponding subscales also correlated significantly. By applying the polynomial regression analysis, the tendency to score might be expressed as a quadratic function of SDSVs. Two iterative principal-factor analyses of the two sets of subscales each resulted in two factors, and Factor 1 is similar in both the KMHQ and the EMHQ. In brief, social desirability plays a critical role in affecting responses in a clinical self-report inventory. The factors involved and suggestions proposed will be of value for further research.     

Development and initial validation of an instrument to measure perceived coercion to enter treatment for substance abuse.

The present study involved 3 phases that led to the development and initial validation of the Perceived Coercion Questionnaire (PCQ), a scale that researchers use to measure perceptions of coercion of drug and alcohol users to enter drug and alcohol treatment. In Phase 1, the authors used focus groups to generate 48 pilot items. In Phase 2, the items were administered to a sample of 158 drug and alcohol users who were in residential treatment within a therapeutic community setting. Item and exploratory factor analyses reduced the number of items to 32, which represented 6 homogeneous and internally reliable subscales. In Phase 3, the PCQ was administered to a second sample of 362 drug and alcohol users. Confirmatory factor analysis led to a final scale of 30 items across 6 subscales that demonstrated sound consistency and validity. Implications for research and practice are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Asthma Impact Record (AIR) index: a rating scale to evaluate the quality of life of asthmatic patients in France

Asthma is a chronic disease, which affects patients' daily lives. The goal of this study was the development of a disease-specific scale to evaluate quality of life in asthmatic patients in France: The Asthma Impact Record Index (AIR Index). The study was conducted with the participation of 486 asthmatic patients using the following steps: 1) selection of dichotomous items; 2) reduction of the number of items; 3) study of reproducibility of the questionnaire; 4) weighting of items; 5) study of the reliability and validity of the final version of the AIR Index. The final version of the AIR Index contains 63 unweighted items. The items were classified into subscales representing the main dimensions of quality of life: 1) physical, which was itself split into two subscales: a) physical activities; and b) symptoms; 2) psychological; and 3) social or relational. The internal consistency, measured by Cronbach's alpha coefficients, was found to be high, for the global scale and all subscales (range 0.79-0.94). The concurrent validity, evaluated by studying the relationship between the score values on the global scale and the subscales, and the parameters reflecting disease severity, was also high. We conclude that the AIR Index might represent a useful evaluative and discriminant instrument in studying quality of life in asthma in French populations.     

The validity and reliability of the Violence Risk Scale-Sexual Offender version: Assessing sex offender risk and evaluating therapeutic change.

The Violence Risk Scale-Sexual Offender version (VRS-SO) is a rating scale designed to assess risk and predict sexual recidivism, to measure and link treatment changes to sexual recidivism, and to inform the delivery of sexual offender treatment. The VRS-SO comprises 7 static and 17 dynamic items empirically or conceptually linked to sexual recidivism. Dynamic items with higher ratings identify treatment targets linked to sexual offending. A modified stages of change model assesses the offender's treatment readiness and change. File-based VRS-SO ratings were completed on 321 sex offenders followed up an average of 10 years postrelease. VRS-SO scores predicted sexual and nonsexual violent recidivism postrelease and demonstrated acceptable interrater reliability and concurrent validity. A factor analysis of the dynamic items generated 3 factors labeled Sexual Deviance, Criminality, and Treatment Responsivity, all of which predicted sexual recidivism and were differentially associated with different sex offender types. The dynamic items together made incremental contributions to sexual recidivism prediction after static risk was controlled for. Positive changes in the dynamic items, measured at pre- and posttreatment, were significantly related to reductions in sexual recidivism after risk and follow-up time were controlled for, suggesting that dynamic items are indeed dynamic or changeable in nature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validation of a diabetes-specific quality-of-life scale for patients with type 1 diabetes

OBJECTIVE: To validate a diabetes-specific quality-of-life scale and to assess its psychometric properties in a large sample of patients with type 1 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: To assess the quality of diabetes care in a population-based study, a representative sample of 684 patients with type 1 diabetes was examined. A total of 657 patients (42% female; mean age 36 years; mean diabetes duration 18 years) completed the diabetes-specific quality-of-life scale (DSQOLS), which comprised 64 items on individual treatment goals (10 items), satisfaction with treatment success (10 items), and diabetes-related distress (44 items). Statistical examinations covered factor analysis, internal consistency of subscales, and construct and discriminant validity. RESULTS: Factor analysis of the 44 items on diabetes-specific burdens revealed six reliable components (Cronbach's alpha): social relations (0.88), physical complaints (0.84), worries about future (0.84), leisure time flexibility (0.85), diet restrictions (0.71), and daily hassles (0.70). All six subscales were significantly correlated with a validated well-being scale (r = -0.35 to -0.53, P < 0.001) and treatment satisfaction (r = 0.28 to 0.43, P < 0.001). Physical complaints (r = 0.24) and worries about future (r = 0.17) showed the highest correlations with HbA1c (P < 0.001). A flexible insulin therapy, a liberalized diet, the absence of late complications, and a higher social status were significantly associated with more favorable scores in different domains. CONCLUSIONS: The DSQOLS is a reliable and valid measure of diabetes-specific quality of life. The scale is able to distinguish between patients with different treatment and dietary regimens and to detect social inequities. Use of the DSQOLS for assessment of individual treatment goals as defined by the patients may be helpful to identify motivational deficits and to tailor individual treatment strategies.     

The Curious Experiences Survey, a revised version of the Dissociative Experiences Scale: Factor structure, reliability, and relations to demographic and personality variables.

A revision of the Dissociative Experiences Scale, including 3 new items and a more user-friendly item format, was administered to an adult community sample. Both orthogonal and oblique factor rotations of from 1 to 5 factors provide evidence of the hierarchical structure of self-reported dissociative experiences. Reliabilities are presented for a longer and a shorter Dissociation scale, and for subscales labeled Depersonalization, Absorption, and Amnesia. Also provided are the relations of the total scale and its 3 subscales to gender, age, and education, as well as to a broad and diverse set of personality attributes. The frequency of self-reported dissociative experiences was positively related to measures of Neuroticism (particularly Depression) and Imagination, and negatively related to Conscientiousness (particularly Dutifulness), Agreeableness, and to a lesser extent age. The Dissociation scales and subscales were not related to gender, educational level, or intelligence, nor to vocational interests or self-reported skills. Three subtle measures of dissociation are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the dimensionality of the California Psychological Inventory Socialization scale.

The California Psychological Inventory Socialization (So) scale is assumed to measure a dimension of socialized behaviors based on role-taking ability. Some studies have reported that the internal structure of the So scale may be complex. The present study tested its dimensionality on 3 groups: (a) 154 female undergraduates, (b) 38 delinquent and 146 nondelinquent 18–31 yr old males, and (c) 64 18–49 yr old males who were undergoing court-ordered psychiatric examination prior to sentencing. All So items except one were used, and these items were divided into 6 subscales. The number of factors producing the correlations of subscales was tested in maximum likelihood factor analyses made separately for the groups. The results made a single factor seem reasonable. The variance–covariance matrices differed significantly for the groups. The fit of a 1-factor model for 3 groups was therefore tested in a simultaneous factor analysis for several populations, and good fit was obtained. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Induction of angiotensin converting enzyme and angiotensin II receptors in the atherosclerotic aorta of high-cholesterol fed Cynomolgus monkeys

Psychometric characteristics of the Social Introversion (Si) scale, the Social Discomfort (SOD) scale, and the Si subscales of the MMPI-2 were examined in clinical samples of 122 psychiatric patients and 399 patients with substance-use disorders. The combined Si1 (Shyness/Self-Consciousness) and Si2 (Social Avoidance) subscales correlated highly with SOD and are apparent measures of the social introversion construct. Si3 (Self/Other Alienation) was found to be a measure of the general maladjustment factor of the MMPI-2. Content not included on the Si subscales was divided into a group of items that measures general maladjustment and 2 other item groups that may assess minor constructs related to social introversion. As in previous research, the 3 Si subscales accounted well for variance in Si scores.     

Factor structure of the Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale for studies of youths with externalizing behavior problems.

The assessment of children’s perception of marital conflict is an important area of research related to family relations, children’s cognitions about self, and the development of psychopathology. The leading instrument in this domain is the Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale (CPIC; J. H. Grych, M. Seid, & F. D. Fincham, 1992). It has 48 items organized into 9 conceptual designed subscales, with reports of 3-factor higher order structure to the 9 subscales. However, the 3-factor solution does not capture all 9 subscales well. Further, items have never been subjected to factor analysis to evaluate the best fitting factor structure at the item level. Doing so is particularly important when bringing the scale into new populations such as children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or disruptive behavior disorders. In the present study, 2 samples of children (total N = 1,190; ages 6–18 years) completed the CPIC. An exploratory factor analysis in Sample 1 (from a clinical study of ADHD and non-ADHD youths) yielded 4 interpretable factors. A confirmatory factor analysis in Sample 2 (a population sample of twins) confirmed the generalizability of the solution with an acceptable fit, although 1 item was dropped. The final solution used 38 of the 48 items. The 4-factor solution captured a Conflict Properties factor, two appraisal factors labeled Threat to Self and Self-Blame, and a Triangulation/Stability factor that included elements of appraisal and content. The authors concluded that the item-based 4-factor solution to the CPIC is preferable to the 9-factor or 3-factor formulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A brief assessment of concerns associated with genetic testing for cancer: The multidimensional impact of cancer risk assessment (MICRA) questionnaire.

The Multidimensional Impact of Cancer Risk Assessment (MICRA) is a new tool to measure the specific impact of result disclosure after genetic testing. The authors compared its performance with that of questionnaires measuring general and cancer-specific distress. Participants (158 women) responded 1 month after they received genetic test results. The women were divided into 4 standard clinical test result groups: BRCA1/2 positive, BRCA1/2 negative, panel negative, and true negative. Factor analysis supported the formation of 3 subscales: Distress (6 items, α= .86), Uncertainty (9 items, α= .77), and Positive Experiences (4 items, α= .75). All 3 MICRA subscales differentiated participants who were BRCAI/2 positive from the other 3 groups. MICRA thus helps identify subgroups of vulnerable genetic testing participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subscale development of the Rehabilitation Situations Inventory.

Developed subscales for the Rehabilitation Situations Inventory in order to design and evaluate training courses to enable rehabilitation staff to deal more effectively with difficult behavioral interactions. Ss were 287 rehabilitation staff from 5 inpatient rehabilitation facilities. Two methods of scale construction were used: Visual inspection of the items with derivation of 6 face-valid categories and exploratory factor analysis. The derived subscales were motivation/adherence situations, sexual situations, aggressive patients, depressed patients, staff interactions, and family interactions. Factor analysis showed a similar categorization of the items. Each of the resulting subscales was found to be internally consistent, reliable, and differentiated from the other subscales though moderately intercorrelated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deconstructing therapy outcome measurement with rasch analysis of a measure of general clinical distress: The Symptom Checklist-90-Revised.

Rasch analysis was used to illustrate the usefulness of item-level analyses for evaluating a common therapy outcome measure of general clinical distress, the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R; Derogatis, 1994). Using complementary therapy research samples, the instrument's 5-point rating scale was found to exceed clients' ability to make reliable discriminations and could be improved by collapsing it into a 3-point version (combining scale points 1 with 2 and 3 with 4). This revision, in addition to removing 3 misfitting items, increased person separation from 4.90 to 5.07 and item separation from 7.76 to 8.52 (resulting in alphas of .96 and .99, respectively). Some SCL-90-R subscales had low internal consistency reliabilities; SCL-90-R items can be used to define one factor of general clinical distress that is generally stable across both samples, with two small residual factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of a new scale for measuring acculturation: the Taiwan Aboriginal Acculturation Scale (TAAS)

As part of the Taiwan Aboriginal Study Project (TASP), a new acculturation scale (the Taiwan Aboriginal Acculturation Scale, or TAAS) has been developed among the aboriginal minorities of Austronesian origin in Taiwan. The design of the original 54 items was based on Milton Gordon's concept of assimilation in association with a careful consideration of cross-cultural validity. These items were administered to 144 subjects stratified by age and sex who were randomly sampled from four major Taiwanese aboriginal groups. Item analysis and factor analysis were applied to select an 18-item scale which has three subscales (factors): cultural assimilation, social assimilation, and social attitude. Results of validity and reliability studies of the TAAS were found to be acceptable. The development of TAAS demonstrates the applicability of the concept of acculturation as a process that involves changes both in attitude, and in behaviour, to non-western societies.     

Reliability, validity, and normative data for a short version of the Understanding of Alcoholism Scale.

In this psychometric study, the authors evaluated a scale measuring treatment staff members' (n?=?329) beliefs about the nature and treatment of substance abuse problems. This scale, the Short Understanding of Substance Abuse Scale (SUSS), is based on the work of Moyers (1991; T. B. Moyers & W. R. Miller, 1993) and assesses staff members' endorsement of disease, psychosocial learning, and eclectic treatment orientations. Data presented in this article support the reliability of subscales that, for ease of administration, have been shortened from T. B. Moyers and W. R. Miller's original version. Evidence suggests that the SUSS has convergent and discriminant validity and is not affected by a yea-saying response bias. SUSS norms for different types of substance abuse treatment staff are presented, and suggestions for further applications and improvements of the measure are put forward. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Synaptosomal uptake of alpha-ketoglutarate and glutamine in thioacetamide-induced hepatic encephalopathy in rats

The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HAD) was evaluated in a Swedish population sample. The purpose of the study was to compare the HAD with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Spielberger's State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). A secondary aim was to examine the factor structure of the HAD. The results indicated that the factor structure was quite strong, consistently showing two factors in the whole sample as well as in different subsamples. The correlations between the total HAD scale and BDI and STAI, respectively, were stronger than those obtained using the different subscales of the HAD (the anxiety and depression subscales). As expected, there was also a stronger correlation between the HAD and the non-physical items of the BDI. It was somewhat surprising that the factor analyses were consistently extracting two factors, 'depression' and 'anxiety', while on the other hand both BDI and STAI tended to correlate more strongly with the total HAD score than with the specific depression and anxiety HAD subscales. Nevertheless, the HAD appeared to be (as was indeed originally intended) a useful clinical indicator of the possibility of depression and clinical anxiety.     

Note of caution on the factor analysis of the MMPI.

Although the dangers associated with factoring test scales containing overlapping items (items used on more than 1 scale) have been pointed out by Guilford (1952), factor studies of scales embodying item overlap continue. The present study explores the possibility that the neurotic triad and the psychotic triad or tetrad factors found in 4 studies derive from the existence of a methodological artifact associated with item overlap. To test this possibility, MMPI interscale common-element correlations (produced solely by item overlap) were factor analyzed. 2 of 3 factors extracted are highly similar to neurotic triad and psychotic triad or tetrad factors found for 4 samples. These 2 factors do not appear in a factor analysis of truncated (overlap items removed) MMPI scale scores. Since the overlap factors are based solely on the scale intercorrelations due to overlap items, these results appear to support Guilford's warning and open to question the legitimacy of these MMPI factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)