Coal powder measurement by digital holography with expanded measurement area

The field of view of digital in-line holography for flow field diagnostics is restricted to a small volume due to the finite size and the low spatial resolution of the available CCD. Expansion of the measurement cross section of digital holographic particle image velocimetry was investigated with a lens-based holography configuration. By sampling the chirp signal in the center lobe completely and undersampling the chirp signal in the second- and higher-order lobes by a magnified virtual recording plane produced by an imaging camera lens, the field of view is expanded. Simulation results show that the three-dimensional (3D) location and size of the relatively large particle can be reconstructed with good accuracy. A digital holographic particle image velocimetry system was established for coal particle flow field diagnostics. Compared with the lensless configuration, the field of view of the digital holography system was enlarged 1.9 times, up to 2.78 cm × 2.78 cm × 3 cm. The 3D location, size distribution, and the 3D vector field of coal powder were obtained. The results show that the application of digital in-line holography to measure large particle flow field is feasible.     

High-resolution digital holography utilized by the subpixel sampling method

A novel (to our knowledge) approach for resolution improvement in digital holography is presented in this paper. The proposed method is based on recording the incoming interference field on a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) camera with subpixel resolution. The method takes advantage of the small pixel size of the CMOS sensor, while overcoming the reduced fill factor. This paper describes the experimental and numerical procedures. The improvement of the obtainable optical resolution, image quality, and phase measurement accuracy are demonstrated within this paper.     

Image formation in phase-shifting digital holography and applications to microscopy

We discuss image formation in phase-shifting digital holography by developing an analytical formulation based on the Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction theory. Image-plane position and imaging magnification are derived for general configurations in which a spherical reference is employed. The influences of discrete sampling of the resulting interference patterns by a CCD and numerical reconstruction on qualities of point images are investigated. Dependence of the point images on the ratio of the minimum fringe spacing to pixel pitch of the CCD is numerically analyzed. Two-point resolution and magnification are also investigated as a function of pixel numbers by a simulation using a one-dimensional model. In experiments magnified images of biological objects and a resolution target were reconstructed with the same quality as by conventional microscopy.     

数字同轴和数字离轴全息系统分析

利用最高空间频率分析法,通过逐点分析记录在 CCD 上的空间频率信息,研究了物体可允许记录的最大横向尺寸、最小记录距离、全息图的信息量、空间分辨力、再现像的横向分辨力、轴向分辨力及散斑大小,并得到了数学表达式。理论分析和实验结果表明,数字同轴全息系统放宽了对 CCD 分辨力的要求,有较高的分辨力,较低的散斑噪声、灵活、简单的系统结构及较高的 CCD 空间带宽利用率,在增强系统性能方面要优于数字离轴全息系统。这一研究为数字全息系统的设计和操作提供了一定的理论和实验指导。     

基于近场声全息的重建算法分析与研究

针对声全息算法种类繁多及应用场合不同需求,通过有限元仿真和数值仿真相结合,对基于傅里叶变换、统计最优和等效源3种算法进行分析,寻找声源频率、重建距离、采样间距及正则化方法对重建精度的影响,并对其计算效率进行对比。在开阔水域进行实验验证。结果表明:随着声源频率增大,重建距离增加,采样点数减少,声全息算法的重建精度逐渐降低。在低频区域,结合L-曲线正则化法的统计最优近场声全息具有最佳的声场重建效果;基于等效源法的声全息重建精度最高,但容易产生虚像;基于傅里叶变换的声全息算法受重建距离影响严重,但重建速度优异,且声源定位准确。     

Large deformation mechanical testing of biological membranes using speckle interferometry in transmission. II: Finite element modeling

In holography and speckle interferometry the measurement range is generally limited by the greatest number of fringes that can be resolved in a single image. As a result these techniques have been generally confined to small displacement measurement applications. In the case of out-of-plane measurements one can overcome this limitation by simply adding incremental measurements at individual detector pixels. In the case of in-plane measurements, however, summing incremental measurements is not a straightforward procedure since the interference pattern moves laterally across the detector as the material deforms. We describe a modeling technique based on finite elements which solves this problem. In combination with a full field method such as holography or speckle interferometry, it provides a very sensitive measurement technique with dense spatial sampling and large dynamic range. Experimental results of speckle interferometry operating in transmission to measure in-plane displacements of biological membranes are presented, where total material displacements are of the order of millimeters. The results also demonstrate how the finite strain tensor is calculated analytically from the data at any point on the material.     

Design of an in-line, digital holographic imaging system for airborne measurement of clouds

We discuss the design and performance of an airborne (underwing) in-line digital holographic imaging system developed for characterizing atmospheric cloud water droplets and ice particles in situ. The airborne environment constrained the design space to the simple optical layout that in-line non-beam-splitting holography affords. The desired measurement required the largest possible sample volume in which the smallest desired particle size (～5 μm) could still be resolved, and consequently the magnification requirement was driven by the pixel size of the camera and this particle size. The resulting design was a seven-element, double-telecentric, high-precision optical imaging system used to relay and magnify a hologram onto a CCD surface. The system was designed to preserve performance and high resolution over a wide temperature range. Details of the optical design and construction are given. Experimental results demonstrate that the system is capable of recording holograms that can be reconstructed with resolution of better than 6.5 μm within a 15 cm(3) sample volume.     

Enhanced geometrical superresolved imaging with moving binary random mask

In this paper, we address the geometrical resolution limitation of an imaging sensor caused by the size of its pixels yielding insufficient spatial sampling of the image. The spatial blurring that is caused due to inadequate sampling can be resolved by placing a two-dimensional binary random mask in an intermediate image plane and shifting it along one direction while keeping the sensor as well as all other optical components fixed. Out of the set of images that are captured, a high resolution image can be decoded. In addition, this approach allows improved robustness to spatial noise.     

In-line recording and off-axis viewing technique for holographic particle velocimetry

Prior approaches (e.g., off-axis holography) to overcoming the limitations of in-line holography for particle fields, namely, intrinsic speckle noise and depth resolution, involved an increased complexity of the optical system. The in-line recording and off-axis viewing (IROV) technique employs a single laser beam to record an in-line hologram, which is then viewed off axis during reconstruction. The signal-to-noise ratio and depth resolution of IROV are higher than conventional in-line holography by an order of magnitude and are comparable with off-axis holography. IROV is a much simpler approach than off-axis holography and is highly promising for holographic particle velocimetry. Measurements of the three dimensional flow velocity field of a vortex ring obtained by an IROV-based holographic particle velocimetry system are presented.     

Viewing-zone enlargement method for sampled hologram that uses high-order diffraction

We demonstrate a method of enlarging the viewing zone for holography that has holograms with a pixel structure. First, aliasing generated by the sampling of a hologram by pixel is described. Next the high-order diffracted beams reproduced from the hologram that contains aliasing are explained. Finally, we show that the viewing zone can be enlarged by combining these high-order reconstructed beams from the hologram with aliasing.     

The influence of structural parameters of CCD on the reconstruction image of digital holograms

The influence of structural parameters of CCD including the size of the pixel, sampling interval and sensitive area on the reconstruction image of digital holograms is discussed. We find that such associating structural parameters interacting with the system related to the optical arrangement for recording the digital holograms, have influences on the brightness, the size and the resolution of the reconstruction image. Considering these influences, we suggest an optimal optical setup for recording high quality digital holograms.     

Quantitative characterization of the limiting resolution of a microscanning imager

A method to determine the limiting resolution of a microscanning imager is proposed. Specifically, both the sample-scene phase effects and aliasing effects due to microscanning are modeled in this method by combining the pixel transfer function and the squeeze modulation transfer function. Further, this model is used to calculate the amount of improvement from typical microscanning modes to the limiting resolution of the imager focusing on various blur factors. Analytical results show that the limiting resolution of the microscanning imager is closely related to microscanning modes. The amount of improvement from different microscanning modes to the limiting resolution is different and is closely associated with the fill factor and the blur factors. The conclusion obtained will be helpful in choosing the optimum microscanning mode according to the fill factor of the detector and system blur factors.     

提高TDICCD相机成像质量的研究

根据TDICCD器件的特点，分析了光学系统，像元尺寸对图像分辨力的影响，研究了器件噪声，速高比和曝光控制对图像质量的影响，采用相关双采样技术，速高比自动引入和自动曝光技术，提高了TDICCD相机的成像质量。     

Quantitative application of the scanning Auger microprobe to the study of thick film structures

A fundamental limitation of the sputter etch-depth profile method for obtaining diffusion profiles at interfaces in thick (>2 μm) film structures is the inherent broadening of the interface due to the sputter process. An example is presented which demonstrates this problem for a thin film composite structure. A procedure is then outlined in which thick film structures are cut and metallographically polished perpendicular to the surface for analysis. A combination of chemical etching and inert ion sputtering is then employed to minimize interface smearing due to the mechanical preparation step. The high resolution scanning Auger microprobe (SAM) is then used in the minimum beam size (less than 2000 Å in diameter) mode to characterize the interface region. Applications of the technique to abrupt interfaces in bimetal strips and galvanized steel demonstrate the potential and limitations of using the SAM technique in a mode analogous to the standard electron microprobe. The potential difficulties due to preferential sputter etching are considered and a general scheme is described to detect whether this phenomenon interferes with the quantitative determination of interface compositions. The limits of resolution of the technique and the effect of a finite probe size are also explored.     

Digital holographic microscopy with dual-wavelength phase unwrapping

We apply the techniques of digital holography to obtain microscopic three-dimensional images of biological cells. The optical system is capable of microscopic holography with diffraction-limited resolution by projecting a magnified image of a microscopic hologram plane onto a CCD plane. Two-wavelength phase-imaging digital holography is applied to produce unwrapped phase images of biological cells. The method of three-wavelength phase imaging is proposed to extend the axial range and reduce the effect of phase noise. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of digital holography in high-resolution biological microscopy.     

Wavelength selection for true-color holography

We discuss wavelength selection for true-color holography by investigating the sampling nature of the holographic process. During holographic recording the chosen wavelengths point sample the surfacereflectance functions of the objects in a scene. To understand the effect of this sampling on color perception, we study the tristimulus values of points in the reconstructed hologram. The sampling results in the holographic process being mathematically equivalent to integral approximations for the tristimulus integrals. By selecting efficient approximations, we infer wavelengths to use in color holography. Our analysis not only suggests wavelengths for the usual three-color holography but also suggests the use of four or more wavelengths to improve color reproduction in holography.     

Digital holography of particle fields: reconstruction by use of complex amplitude

Digital holography appears to be a strong contender as the next-generation technology for holographic diagnostics of particle fields and holographic particle image velocimetry for flow field measurement. With the digital holographic approach, holograms are directly recorded by a digital camera and reconstructed numerically. This not only eliminates wet chemical processing and mechanical scanning, but also enables the use of complex amplitude information inaccessible by optical reconstruction, thereby allowing flexible reconstruction algorithms to achieve optimization of specific information. However, owing to the inherently low pixel resolution of solid-state imaging sensors, digital holography gives poor depth resolution for images, a problem that severely impairs the usefulness of digital holography especially in densely populated particle fields. This paper describes a technique that significantly improves particle axial-location accuracy by exploring the reconstructed complex amplitude information, compared with other numerical reconstruction schemes that merely mimic traditional optical reconstruction. This novel method allows accurate extraction of particle locations from forward-scattering particle holograms even at high particle loadings.     

Lensless vision system for in-plane positioning of a patterned plate with subpixel resolution

Whereas vision is an efficient way for noncontact sensing of many physical quantities, it assumes a cumbersome imaging system that may be very problematic in confined environments. In such contexts, the design of a compact vision probe can be based on digital holography that is a lensless imaging principle. In this interferometric method, object scenes are reconstructed numerically through wave propagation computations applied to a diffracted optical field recorded as an interferogram. We applied this approach to the visual positioning of a micropatterned glass plate. The pseudoperiodic pattern deposited on the surface is suited for absolute in-plane position determination as well as for fine object-feature interpolation leading to subpixel resolution. Results obtained demonstrate a lateral resolution of 0.1 μm, corresponding to 1/20th of a pixel, from a 150 μm period of the pseudoperiodic pattern and with a demonstrated excursion range of 1.6 cm. In the future, such position encoding could be applied to the backside of standardized sample holders for the easy localization of regions of interest when specimens are transferred from an instrument to another one, for instance in nanotechnology processes.     

Optimal noise suppression in Fresnel incoherent correlation holography (FINCH) configured for maximum imaging resolution

An optimal setup in the sense of imaging resolution for the Fresnel incoherent correlation holography (FINCH) system is proposed and analyzed. Experimental results of the proposed setup in reflection mode suffer from low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to a granular noise. SNR improvement is achieved by two methods that rely on increasing the initial amount of phase-shifted recorded holograms. In the first method, we average over several independent complex-valued digital holograms obtained by recording different sets of three digital phase-shifted holograms. In the second method, the least-squares solution for solving a system of an overdetermined set of linear equations is approximated by utilizing the Moore-Penrose pseudoinverse. These methods improve the resolution of the reconstructed image due to their ability to reveal fine and weak details of the observed object.     

小波变换在数字全息中的应用

数字全息是通过数字重构来同时获取被测物强度与相位,但记录时的激光散斑效应和重构时的零级衍射斑成为了这种方法的瓶颈。将小波变换引入数字全息,可直接消除零级衍射像,无需相移,也不需要采集多幅图像;小波非线性滤波器还可消除散斑噪声。模拟和实验结果表明,小波分析的引入,可以消除零级衍射影响,改善图像质量,提高测试分辨率。