Comparison of normal and inverse poly(3-hexylthiophene)/fullerene solar cell architectures

Polymer solar cells based on regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and ([6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester) (PCBM) were fabricated with two different architectures (normal and inverse). Normal cells using indium tin oxide (ITO) as anode and Al as cathode were fabricated on polyester foils and illuminated from substrate side. Inverse cells using Ti as cathode and ultrathin Au layer as anode were illuminated from the top side covered by a transparent Au contact. Both Au layer and PET/ITO show comparable transmission in the spectral range where P3HT absorbs. Inverse cells showed comparable device parameters to normal cell (open circuit voltage 550 mV, short circuit current 6.25 mA/cm², fill factor 0.33 and white light power conversion efficiency 1.12%).     

Flexible large area polymer solar cells based on poly(3-hexylthiophene)/fullerene

Photovoltaic devices based on regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and ([6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester) (PCBM) were fabricated and characterized using 5×5 cm ITO polyester foils with an active cell area of 0.5×0.5 cm². The HOMO/LUMO of P3HT and PCBM were estimated from cyclic voltammetry data. The complete quenching of photoluminescence of P3HT after mixing with PCBM indicates an effective charge transfer from P3HT to PCBM. The absorption spectrum of a blend (1:3 wt%) of both components shows that there is no ground state doping. Following device parameters without any special postproduction treatment were determined: V_OC=600 mV, I_SC=6.61 mA/cm², FF=0.39 and η_AM1.5 (P_IN:100 mW/cm²)=1.54%.     

The role of conformational transitions on the performance of poly(3-hexylthiophene)/fullerene solar cells

Poly(3-hexylthiophene) formed gels and showed liquid crystalline structures at high concentrations. The absorption properties of poly(3-hexylthiophene) showed dramatic changes during gelation, which is an indication of strong intermolecular π-electronic coupling of the ordered self-assembled poly(3-hexylthiophene) gels. The effect of conformational transitions on the photovoltaic properties of solution-processed poly(3-hexylthiophene)/fullerene blends have been studied in this paper. It is shown that the photovoltaic performance is strongly affected by gelation, which alters the morphology of the photoactive layer. Device optimization yields solar cells with a power conversion efficiency of 4.0% under standard test conditions (AM 1.5, 100 mW/cm²).     

Electrochemically grown ZnO nanorods for hybrid solar cell applications

A hybrid solar cell is designed and proposed as a feasible and reasonable alternative, according to acquired efficiency with the employment of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorods and ZnO thin films at the same time. Both of these ZnO structures were grown electrochemically and poly(3-hexylthiophene):phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester; (P3HT:PCBM) was used as an active polymer blend, which was found to be compatible to prepared indium-tin-oxide (ITO) substrate base. This ITO base was introduced with mentioned ZnO structure in such a way that, the most efficient configuration was optimized to be ITO/ZnO film/ZnO nanorod/P3HT: PCBM/Ag. Efficiency of this optimized device is found to be 2.44%. All ZnO works were carried out electrochemically, that is indeed for the first time and at relatively lower temperatures.     

Synthesis and application in solar cell of poly(3-octylthiophene)/cadmium sulfide nanocomposite

A conducting polymer composite, poly(3-octylthiophene)/cadmium sulfide (POT/CdS) was first synthesized. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) depict the morphology of the samples, defining that CdS was successfully coated by poly(3-octylthiophene) molecules. X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and infrared spectroscopy (IR) show that there is a chemical interaction in the composite. The energy gap of the POT/CdS composite is lower at 0.824 eV, which also shows that the optical performance of the new material is far superior to POT or CdS separately, by ultraviolet-visible spectra (UV-vis). Solar cell was sensitized by POT/CdS. A solar-to-electric energy conversion efficiency of 0.581% was attained with the system. The results show that POT/CdS nanocomposites are promising materials with excellent performance characteristics in photoelectric applications.     

The effect of solvent induced crystallinity of polymer layer on poly(3-hexylthiophene)/C70 bilayer solar cells

A bilayer polymer solar cell is demonstrated with the device configuration ITO/PEDOT:PSS/poly(3-hexylthiophene)/C₇₀/Al. In this article, we highlight the importance of polymer surface morphology, its crystallinity and mobility on device output parameters. The solvent used for polymer processing plays a major role in deciding these parameters and it was observed that high boiling point solvents are desirable for achieving large surface roughness of the polymer layer, which in turn provide more interface area in the bilayer device structure. Due to the increased interface area for exciton dissociation, these bilayer devices resulted in a maximum power conversion efficiency of 3.65% under one sun radiation.     

Photoelectrochemical solar energy conversion based on blend of poly(3-hexylthiophene) and fullerene

A solid-state photoelectrochemical solar energy conversion device based on blend of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and fullerene (C₆₀) has been constructed and characterized. The photoelectrochemical performance parameters of the device were compared with pure P3HT solid-state photoelectrochemical cell. The current–voltage characteristics in the dark and under white light illumination and photocurrent spectra for front- and backside illuminations have been studied. The following device parameters were obtained: an open-circuit voltage of 97.8 mV and a short-circuit current of 7.28 μA/cm² at light intensity of 100 mW/cm²; IPCE% of 0.43% for front side illumination (ITO/PEDOT) and IPCE% of 0.01% for backside illumination (ITO/P3HT:C₆₀). The dependence of the short-circuit current and an open-circuit voltage on the light intensity and time have also been studied.     

The importance of post-annealing process in the device performance of poly(3-hexylthiophene): Methanofullerene polymer solar cell

We investigated the effect of annealing sequence on the performance of polymer solar cell with the composite of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and a C₆₀ derivative. The post-annealing under the existence of Al metal cap induced a substantial increase in the interfacial area between the active layer and Al cathode and in crystallization of P3HT molecules, resulting in reduction of series resistance and the enhanced photocurrent in the device. Furthermore, the post-annealing brought about the increase of light harvest in active layer and hindered the formation of shunt paths in the donor (D)/acceptor (A) bulk-heterojunction structure compared to the pre-annealing.     

Structural effect of electron acceptor on charge transfer in poly(3-hexylthiophene)/methanofullerene bulk heterojunctions

Radical pairs, polarons and fullerene anion radicals photoinduced by photons with energy of 1.98-2.73 eV in bulk heterojunctions formed by poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) with bis(1-[3-(methoxycarbonyl)propyl]-1-phenyl)-[6.6]C₆₂ (bis-PCBM) methanofullerene have been studied as compared with P3HT/PCBM composite by direct light-induced EPR (LEPR) method in a wide temperature range. A part of spin polarons and methanofullerene anion radicals are pinned in trap sites which number and depth are governed by an ordering of the polymer/fullerene system and energy of initiating photons. It has been shown that dynamics and recombination of mobile polarons and counter methanofullerene anion radicals are governed by their exchange- and multi-trap assisted diffusion. Relaxation and dynamics of both the charge carriers determined by the steady-state saturation method are governed by structure and conformation of their microenvironment as well as by the photon energy. Longitudinal diffusion of polarons was shown to depend on lattice phonons of crystalline domains embedded into an amorphous polymer matrix. The energy barrier required for polaron interchain hopping is higher than its intrachain diffusion. Pseudorotation of fullerene derivatives in a polymer matrix was shown to follow the activation Pike model. The replacement of PCBM by bis-PCBM provides higher anisotropy of polaron dynamics and decreases its selectivity to the photon energy. This makes spin dynamics easier and minimizes energy dispersion at charge transfer.     

Precipitated nanosized titanium dioxide for electrochemical applications

Two types of titanium dioxide samples precipitated from aqueous solutions of titanium tetrachloride are investigated. Crystalline materials are obtained by means of neutralization of TiCl₄ with the solution of an alkali metal hydroxide. The change of the order of mixing leads to amorphous materials. The evolution of the samples upon the thermal treatment is characterized using XRD, SEM, TEM and porosity studies. The application of crystalline TiO₂ as an electrode material in lithium-ion 2016 sample cells enable one to yield specific currents up to 3350 mA g⁻¹. On the other hand, the thermal treatment of initially amorphous materials does not lead to complete crystallization, and the presence of amorphous TiO₂ is well seen as the so-called capacity behavior of cyclic voltammetry curves.     

Investigations of efficiency improvements in poly(3-hexylthiophene) based organic solar cells using calcium cathodes

In this study, we investigate the mechanisms leading to the power conversion efficiency improvement in poly(3-hexylthiophene):[6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (P3HT:PCBM) based organic solar cells using calcium (Ca) in cathode structures. Ultraviolet and x-ray photoemission spectroscopy (UPS and XPS) indicate that chemical reactions occur at the P3HT/Ca interface. Upon Ca deposition, UPS results illustrate a 0.8 eV-downward shift in energy levels of P3HT, but not in those of PCBM. In addition to forming an ohmic contact at the cathode the presence of Ca widens the energy difference between the HOMO of P3HT and the LUMO of PCBM at the cathode interfaces, which results in the increase of open circuit voltage and the enhancement of device efficiency.     

Improving the direct methanol fuel cell performance with poly(vinyl alcohol)/titanium dioxide nanocomposites as a novel electrolyte additive

The present investigation deals with the fabrication of new poly(vinyl alcohol)/titanium dioxide (PVA/TiO₂) nanocomposites (NCs) with different titanium dioxide (TiO₂) loading by using ultrasound irradiation. For the improvement of nanoparticles (NPs) dispersion and increasing possible interactions between NPs and PVA, the surface of TiO₂ NPs was modified by γ-aminopropyltriethoxy silane. The as-prepared NCs were characterized by spectroscopic, thermogravimetric analysis and electron microscopy methods. The results demonstrate that NPs dispersed homogeneously within the PVA matrix on nanoscale, which could be assigned to the hydrogen and covalent bonds formed between PVA and NPs. The results indicated that heat stability of NCs was improved in the presence of modified TiO₂ NPs. The mechanisms of surface modification and a possible mechanism of ultrasonic induced interaction between polymer and NPs have been analyzed.     

Cubic titanium dioxide photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells

Following from the recently evolved concept of significantly improving the photovoltaic efficiency in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) by reducing the loss of electrons on the spherical surface of titanium dioxide, this study examines the synthesis of cubic TiO₂ with a special morphology to overcome this electron loss and investigates its application to DSSCs. Cubic TiO₂ is synthesized by an advanced rapid hydrothermal method, with the addition of an amine species additive. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images confirm the cubic shape of the TiO₂ particles with a diameter less than 5-10 nm. Using N719 dye under illumination with 100 mW cm⁻² simulated sunlight, the application of cubic TiO₂ to DSSCs affords an energy conversion efficiency of approximately 9.77% (4.0-μm thick TiO₂ film), which is considerably enhanced compared with that achieved using a commercial, spherical TiO₂. Electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) and impedance analyses reveal that the electrons are transferred more rapidly to the surface of a cubic TiO₂ film than on a spherical TiO₂ film.     

Solid-state D102 dye sensitized/poly(3-hexylthiophene) hybrid solar cells on flexible Ti substrate

Flexible solid-state dye sensitized solar cell is an important milestone for low-cost, large scale fabrication of dye-sensitized solar cells. Flexible solid-state dye-sensitized solar cell is fabricated for the first time on titanium substrates using D102 sensitizer and a sputtered platinum semi-transparent cathode. Devices are illuminated from the cathode side since titanium substrates are non-transparent. Due to rear-side illumination, significant proportion of radiation is absorbed and scattered by poly(3-hexylthiophene) and platinum, respectively. Limiting the amount of platinum and poly(3-hexylthiophene), up to a point, is found to enhance device efficiency. The amount of platinum and poly(3-hexylthiophene) is optimized on glass substrates before fabrication of flexible devices on titanium substrates. The rough surface of titanium substrates is smoothened until a mirror finish and the growth of a thin layer of native oxide enhanced the device efficiency. Under optimized conditions, an efficiency of 1.20% is obtained for devices fabricated on titanium foil substrates. The lower efficiency as compared to conventional devices is mainly due to light absorption/scattering from the poly(3-hexylthiophene) and platinum layers.     

Screen-printed titanium dioxide anti-reflection coating for silicon solar cells

Application of a titanium organometallic ink for silicon solar cell anti-reflection coatings prepared by conventional thick-film printing methods is described. Several titanium organometallic compounds have been synthesized and tested afterwards. The optimum ink composition consists of di-isopropoxobis (pentane-2,4-dionato) titanium as the TiO₂ source, and terpineol, ethyl cellulose, butanol as the organic vehicle. The ink has been screen-printed onto polished silicon wafers and thermally treated at above 450°C to convert the printed layer to a glass-like oxide film. Reflection spectra and ellipsometric measurements have shown that the films are optically equivalent to those prepared by other more complex techniques. Silicon sol? cells with screen-printed metallization and anti-reflection coating have shown as much as 35? in efficiency over the uncoated devices.     

Mix-solvent-thermal method for the synthesis of anatase nanocrystalline titanium dioxide used in dye-sensitized solar cell

Nanocrystalline TiO₂ with almost pure anatase form has been synthesized through the Mix-solvent-thermal method (MST) by using TiCl₄ as the starting material. The mean size of the synthesized TiO₂ is 10 nm with narrow distribution. High-performance dye-sensitized solar cell with nanocrystalline TiO₂ electrode formed from MST was achieved. Its I_sc and V_oc values reached 21.62 mA/cm² and 727.9 mV, respectively, and the photovoltaic conversion efficiency reached 9.13%, i.e. 7.5% higher than those of solar cells with TiO₂ made from the traditional precursor of titanium alkoxides. To our knowledge they are the highest values obtained from the solar cells with nanocrystalline TiO₂ electrode formed from the hydrolysis of TiCl₄.     

Sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone)/ethylene glycol/polyhedral oligosilsesquioxane hybrid membranes for fuel cell applications

The paper describes the preparation of hybrid membranes using a trisilanol phenyl polyhedral oligosilsesquioxane (TSP POSS) as filler, ethylene glycol (EG) as cross-linker and sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) [SPEEK] (DS ∼65%) as polymer matrix.     

Electrochemical investigation of sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone)/clay nanocomposite membranes for moderate temperature fuel cell applications

In the present study, polyelectrolyte membranes based on partially sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (sPEEK) with various degrees of sulfonation are prepared. The optimum degree of sulfonation is determined according to the transport properties and hydrolytic stability of the membranes. Subsequently, various amounts of the organically modified montmorillonite (MMT) are introduced into the sPEEK matrices via the solution intercalation technique. The proton conductivity and methanol permeability measurements of the fabricated composite membranes reveal a high proton to methanol selectivity, even at elevated temperatures. Membrane based on sPEEK and 1 wt% of MMT, as the optimum nanoclay composition, exhibits a high selectivity and power density at the concentrated methanol feed. Moreover, it is found that the optimum nanocomposite membrane not only provides higher performance compared to the neat sPEEK and Nafion^®117 membranes, but also exhibits a high open circuit voltage (OCV) at the elevated methanol concentration. Owing to the high proton conductivity, reduced methanol permeability, high power density, convenient processability and low cost, sPEEK/MMT nanocomposite membranes could be considered as the alternative membranes for moderate temperature direct methanol fuel cell applications.     

Effects of nanocrystal size and device aging on performance of hybrid poly(3-hexylthiophene):CdSe nanocrystal solar cells

We have studied hybrid solar cells based on the polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and colloidal CdSe nanocrystals. Using CdSe nanospheres with varying size, we have found that the power conversion efficiency (η_P) of these devices increases monotonically with the CdSe nanocrystal size, from η_P=(0.39±0.04)% under AM1.5G solar illumination for 4.0±0.2 nm size nanospheres to η_P=(1.9±0.2)% for 6.8±0.5 nm size nanospheres. The efficiency increase with nanocrystal size is mostly due to a significant increase in the short-circuit current, whereas the open-circuit voltage and fill factor of the solar cells are less affected. The devices also exhibit abnormal initial aging behavior when exposed to air, as an increase in both the short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage during the first 30 min leads to a significant increase in η_P.