普通硅酸盐混凝土中临界氯离子浓度的试验研究

为得到含氯环境下普通硅酸盐混凝土中钢筋的开始腐蚀时间,首先应掌握的一个重要参数是临界氯离子浓度,此参数因受多种因素影响而数值分布较广。本文基于在脱钝过程中钢筋腐蚀电位集中体现了多因素的综合作用的观点,通过以下三部分工作对临界氯离子浓度进行了研究:首先,利用静电位法,在模拟溶液中测试了氯离子浓度与点蚀电位之间的关系,电位的变化范围取-350￣ 100 mV(SCE);然后,将钢筋混凝土试块放置在三种典型环境中(干燥、湿润、浸润环境),分别测试了三种环境下钢筋腐蚀电位的分布范围;最后,基于钢筋脱钝的两个必要条件:足够小的混凝土电阻以及腐蚀电位超越点蚀电位,得到针对三种腐蚀环境的以占水泥用量比例表示的总氯离子浓度取值。     

Chloride penetration in concrete under marine atmospheric environment – analysis of the influencing factors

Marine atmospheric exposure conditions provide a severe environment for reinforced concrete structures, mainly due to the occurrence of chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion. This procedure was influenced by many parameters related to the concrete properties and to the environmental condition. In this paper, cubic concrete specimens with 150-mm edge, different types of cementitious material and different strengths, were arranged on a structure, which exposed them to a natural marine atmospheric environment. The purpose was to evaluate quantitatively the influence of different exposure conditions on the durability of concrete, measured in terms of chloride penetration into concrete. Both relative humidity (RH) and temperature were monitored in the experiment. The results indicated that the surface RH and temperature of the concrete were much different from that of the air. The diffusion coefficient and surface chloride concentration were time- and location-dependent, and were influenced by the RH, temperature, and the concrete strength. The results also indicate that error results would be made when using constant diffusion coefficient and surface chloride concentration with the air RH and temperature to predict long-term chloride penetration.     

Reliability of RC beams under chloride-ingress

An assessment of the reliability of reinforced concrete beams with corroded reinforcement was proposed based on the computation of the reliability index. The corrosion was induced by chlorides provided from de-icing salts or marine breeze. Models for chloride diffusion and corrosion kinetics were chosen depending on the availability of consistent statistical data, and as well as to represent the physical phenomena realistically. The statistical distributions were specified from a wide review of previous studies for environmental parameters (surface chloride concentration or flux, coefficient of diffusion, corrosion current density) and also for geometrical parameters and mechanical properties of materials. Various design specifications were accounted for in designing the beams corresponding to different expected degrees of aggressiveness of the environment and the possibility of concrete cracking. The time-dependant reliability was evaluated taking into account the previous survival period of the structure. The results show the effect on reliability of exposure conditions, quality of concrete and design option according to the french design rules.     

Reinforced concrete repairs in beams

The effectiveness of reinforced concrete repairs may be established in terms of their ability to restore the structural integrity of the reinforced concrete element and to protect the reinforcement from severe weathering conditions. Therefore, 18 large scale reinforced concrete beams were cast and subject to an accelerated corrosion mechanism in a chloride environment. The beams were repaired using two different materials for comparison purposes, namely an OPC mortar and a free flowing micro-concrete. Twelve beams were tested just after the repair material has cured, and the remaining beams were subjected to an aggressive weathering cycle for 6 months after which structural and electrochemical testing were conducted. This paper presents the results of both structural load testing of all beams, and physical and electrochemical performance of repaired beams before and during the accelerated weathering. The results of structural testing showed that in short-term situation both materials behaved very similar to each other and were able to restore 60–70% of the beams’ capacity. But in long-term situation the OPC mortar beams has deteriorated badly showing extensive cracking, while the free flowing micro concrete beams have shown very little cracking. The former restored only 40–50% of the capacity while the latter restored approximately 90%. The electrochemical monitoring data provided a useful comparison of two repair systems in terms of inhibitive influence of repairs on steel reinforcement and electrochemical interactions between the repaired and unrepaired areas. The protection afforded to the corroded rebars and subsequent reduction in corrosion rate was more significant with free flowing micro-concrete repair material than with OPC mortar. Incipient anodes were formed at the repair/concrete interfaces soon after the repair. Under accelerated weathering conditions, free flowing micro-concrete has been found to offer better resistance to chloride ingress from an external source than OPC mortar. A significant increase in corrosion rate and concrete surface weathering was observed in the climatic chamber, hence suggesting that a long term performance of a repair material can be assessed in a short time scale under these conditions.     

Application of machine learning technique for predicting and evaluating chloride ingress in concrete

The degradation of concrete structure in the marine environment is often related to chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcement steel. Therefore, the chloride concentration in concrete is a vital parameter for estimating the corrosion level of reinforcement steel. This research aims at predicting the chloride content in concrete using three hybrid models of gradient boosting (GB), artificial neural network (ANN), and random forest (RF) in combination with particle swarm optimization (PSO). The input variables for modeling include exposure condition, water/binder ratio (W/B), cement content, silica fume, time exposure, and depth of measurement. The results indicate that three models performed well with high accuracy of prediction (R²≥ 0.90). Among three hybrid models, the model using GB_PSO achieved the highest prediction accuracy (R² = 0.9551, RMSE = 0.0327, and MAE = 0.0181). Based on the results of sensitivity analysis using SHapley Additive exPlanation (SHAP) and partial dependence plots 1D (PDP-1D), it was found that the exposure condition and depth of measurement were the two most vital variables affecting the prediction of chloride content. When the number of different exposure conditions is larger than two, the exposure significantly impacted the chloride content of concrete because the chloride ion ingress is affected by both chemical and physical processes. This study provides an insight into the evaluation and prediction of the chloride content of concrete in the marine environment.     

Performance evaluation of rebar in chloride contaminated concrete by corrosion rate

The presence of chloride ions in reinforced concrete (RC) plays a major role in reinforcement corrosion and hence for the durability and service life of RC structures. With growing concern towards the deterioration of reinforced concrete structures, the use of electrochemical techniques for their performance evaluation has become an important topic of durability study. This paper illustrates the findings of an experimental investigation carried out on large number of specimens for evaluating the performance of different types of rebar in chloride contaminated concrete made with different types of cement through different corrosion rate techniques. The specimens were prepared with three types of cement and three types of steel. From the results of corrosion rate, it was observed that the values of corrosion rate obtained by linear polarization resistance (LPR) technique with guard ring arrangement were in close agreement with those obtained by gravimetric method. On the other hand the corrosion rate values obtained by AC impedance spectroscopy were slightly lower than those obtained by LPR measurement. Further, correlations between different corrosion rate techniques were also obtained. From the results of analysis of variance (ANOVA), it was observed that chloride content has the strongest effect on corrosion rate as compared to other factors.     

Numerical simulation of the probability of corrosion initiation of RC elements made of reinforcing steel with improved corrosion performance

Abstract

Steel reinforcing bars in concrete are protected from corrosion by a thin oxide film that is created on the steel surface in the highly alkaline environment of the concrete. Corrosion process begins once this oxide film is destroyed, for example, by chloride ions penetrating from the element surface into the concrete and to the steel rebar. Critical chloride concentration is highly variable owing to numerous factors such as the type of reinforcing steel used. The TransChlor® software is used to simulate the time history of chloride ion ingress and corrosion initiation into a typical reinforced concrete structural element with four different types of reinforcing steel, namely, carbon steel, ferritic stainless steel (1.4003) with rolling skin, duplex stainless steel (1.4462) and ferritic stainless steel (1.4003) with pickled surface. A climate model is used to simulate two different exposure conditions of the structural element, namely direct and mist exposure, representatives for winter conditions in mountainous and lowland areas. A probabilistic method is applied to consider uncertainty of material properties in the model. The results show that reinforcing steel bars with enhanced corrosion performance significantly improve the durability of reinforced concrete.     

Influence of CaCl2 and NaCl from different sources on chloride threshold value for the corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete

The influence of CaCl₂ and NaCl from internal and external sources on the chloride threshold value for the corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete has been investigated. The onset of active corrosion for the steel reinforcement has been detected by half-cell potential and linear polarization methods. Also, the threshold value with different indices, such as free chlorides, [Cl^?]/[OH^?], total chlorides and [Cl^?]/[H⁺] has been measured. It has been found that the chloride threshold values for the corrosion of the specimens with CaCl₂ and NaCl from different sources depend on the indices. Especially, the critical [Cl^?]/[H⁺], i.e. the ratio of acid soluble chlorides to acid neutralisation capacity irrespective of the type and different sources of chloride salt approximately keeps constant at 0.02.     

Reliability-based design method of suppressing chloride ingress for reinforced concrete buildings located in coastal regions of Taiwan

The main purpose of this work is to propose an estimating procedure that building designers can use to choose methods of suppressing chloride ingress, i.e. concrete-cover thickness, concrete-surface coating and concrete mix (water–cement ratio), for reinforced concrete (RC) buildings with a specified durability performance. At first, the authors build equations for estimating airborne chloride concentrations in coastal regions in Taiwan by regressing measurement data. Then, an analytical model incorporates these data into a deterioration model for chloride-induced corrosion and to estimate corrosion of reinforcing steel bars. This work also presents a novel computational procedure to calculate the risk of corrosion for reinforcing steel bars embedded in concrete, while considering uncertainties in environmental conditions, material properties and model error. Using risk curves of corrosion, building designers can set an allowable durable reliability to determine the minimal required concrete-cover thickness for RC members. Finally, this work adopts coastal regions in Taiwan as an example to determine the minimum required concrete-cover thicknesses. Furthermore, reliability-based methods of suppressing chloride ingress for RC buildings are also suggested for each division zone of Taiwan.     

Corrosion resistant performance of a chemical quenched rebar in concrete

The corrosion resistance performance of the rebar quenched by a new chemical reagent FM in concrete containing chloride ions was evaluated comparing with bare rebar, water-cooled rebar and air-cooled rebar using electrochemical methods. Two different accelerated corrosion tests (14 cycles of dry/wet alternated corrosion tests and long-term immersion tests) were carried out to accelerate the corrosion process. EIS results of both accelerated corrosion tests showed the corrosion resistance performance of different rebar specimens could be sequenced from high to low as FM-cooled rebar, bare rebar, air-cooled rebar, and water-cooled rebar. It was observed that, after 14 cycles of accelerated corrosion tests, the corrosion degree of FM-cooled rebar is the slightest and most of the initial scale remains undamaged. This result proves that the corrosion resistance of the FM-cooled rebar is much better than the other three kinds of rebar. By using FM-cooling process, the corrosion resistance performance of rebar in concrete has been improved by optimizing the quality of the scale.     

A Bayesian network framework for statistical characterisation of model parameters from accelerated tests: application to chloride ingress into concrete

This paper addresses the topic of long-term characterisation and probabilistic modelling of chloride ingress into reinforced concrete (RC) structures. Since the corrosion initiation stage may cover various decades, normal tests which simulate chloride penetration into concrete in laboratory conditions as the same as natural conditions, will require significant experimental times. Hence, long-term lifetime assessment of RC structures under chloride attack remains still a challenge. In practice, this problem is solved through the use of accelerated tests which speed up the chloride ingress rate and provide valuable mid- and long-term information on the chloride penetration process. Nevertheless, this information cannot be directly used for parameter statistical characterisation if the equivalent times required in natural conditions to reach the same chloride concentrations in the accelerated tests are unknown. Consequently, this study proposes a novel iterative approach based on Bayesian network updating to estimate chloride ingress model parameters from the data obtained under accelerated laboratory conditions. The Bayesian network structure and iterative approach are first tested with numerical evidences. Thereafter, the complete proposed methodology is verified with results from real experimental measurements. The results indicate that combining data from normal and accelerated tests significantly reduces the statistical characterisation error of model parameters.     

氯离子对钢筋混凝土结构的侵蚀分析

氯离子侵蚀引起钢筋锈蚀破坏十分突出,是造成钢筋混凝土结构过早破坏的主要原因之一.分析氯离子进入混凝土中的途径、存在形式和氯离子在混凝土中的扩散模式,考虑温度变化、时间变化、湿度变化以及混凝土内部缺陷特征不同对扩散系数的影响,基于Fick第二扩散定律建立了氯离子在混凝土中的扩散模型,并分析了氯离子表面浓度、氯离子临界浓度和有效氯离子扩散系数的影响因素和确定方法,由此建立的模型可供寿命预测参考使用.     

The effect of electrochemical chloride extraction on pre-stressed concrete

Chloride induced corrosion is the main cause of corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. Electrochemical chloride extraction, also known as desalination, is applied to concrete structures containing ordinary reinforcement in order to extract chlorides from the concrete. During this process, atomic hydrogen generated on the steel surface can cause hydrogen embrittlement of the steel. High strength steels, such as those that are used in pre-stressed concrete, are particularly susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement which, at worst, can result in the sudden and unpredictable collapse of a structure. This paper presents the results of a series of constant extension rate tests conducted on 22 pre-stressed concrete specimens that had been subjected to electrochemical chloride extraction. The paper concludes that the risk of hydrogen induced brittle fracture due to electrochemical chloride extraction cannot be altered with modification of the treatment parameters, such as current density or treatment duration. It was also uninfluenced by different surface states of the steel (corroded or not corroded). Therefore, based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded that electrochemical chloride extraction should not be applied to pre-stressed concrete.     

基于温差发电的混凝土模拟液中钢筋阴极保护

采用温差发电片作为电源,混凝土模拟孔隙液作为介质,研究温差发电应用于钢筋阴极保护的可行性.结合半电池电位、线性极化、Tafel曲线和电化学噪声,分析了温差发电单元对钢筋进行阴极保护的效果.结果表明:温差发电单元具有与直流电源相同的电学性能,内阻不会随着两端温差变化而明显变化;在阴极保护系统中温差发电单元具有很好的稳定性,实施阴极保护可以使钢筋电位负移至保护电位;阴极保护后钢筋的腐蚀速率大大减小,从腐蚀状态进入热力学稳定状态而得到有效保护.     

表面防水处理对氯离子侵蚀混凝土中钢筋锈蚀的影响

采用半电池电位法对四种不同条件下钢筋混凝土中的钢筋锈蚀情况进行了测定,分析了硅烷溶液防水剂、Cl-及水胶比对钢筋锈蚀的影响.试验结果表明:水胶比越大,钢筋开始锈蚀的时间越早,锈蚀的程度越严重;对于含有初始氯离子并且锈蚀已经发生的钢筋混凝土,表面防水处理不能够有效控制钢筋锈蚀;对于有外界Cl-侵蚀的钢筋混凝土,硅烷溶液防水剂能有效地降低由于Cl-引起的钢筋锈蚀的概率,并且延缓钢筋锈蚀的时间.     

氯盐环境下混凝土内钢绞线的锈蚀特性试验研究

预应力钢筋的锈蚀特性是研究预应力混凝土结构耐久性失效及防治的基础，为此，分别采用内掺盐和外浸盐两种方式在自然气候条件下作了如下三组混凝土内钢筋锈蚀的对比试验：钢绞线与热轧带肋钢筋、钢绞线与热轧光圆钢筋、钢绞线中心钢丝与热轧光圆钢筋。通过对锈蚀过程中锈蚀电流密度的测试以及试验完毕后的破形观察与称重对比和分析，得到如下结果：钢筋外表面锈蚀程度在面向保护层侧明显严重于背向保护层侧；钢绞线及其中心钢丝外表面锈蚀相对最不均匀，具有严重的局部锈蚀——坑蚀形态，带肋钢筋次之，光圆钢筋相对最均匀、全面；钢绞线内表面发生类似于空气中的相对全面、均匀的锈蚀；钢绞线的平均外表面锈蚀率小于热轧带肋钢筋的与热轧光圆钢筋的，但严重的局部锈蚀对其受拉性能极其不利。另外，还对上述锈蚀特性进行了电化学机理分析。     

In-situ condition monitoring of reinforced concrete structures

Performance of concrete structures is significantly influenced and governed by its durability and resistance to environmental or exposure conditions, apart from its physical strength. It can be monitored, evaluated and predicted through modeling of physical deterioration mechanisms, performance characteristics and parameters and condition monitoring of in situ concrete structures. One such study has been conducted using Non-destructive testing equipment in the city of Bhopal and around located in India. Some selected parameters influencing durability of reinforced concrete (RC) structures such as concrete cover, carbonation depth, chloride concentration, half cell potential and compressive strength have been measured, for establishing correlation among various parameters and age of structures. Effects of concrete cover and compressive strength over the variation of chloride content with time are also investigated.     

Performance parameters for the durability design of reinforced concrete structures with stainless steel reinforcement

Stainless steel reinforcing bars can be a suitable choice to guarantee the target service life of reinforced concrete structures exposed to aggressive chloride-bearing environments. Usually, the choice of the stainless steel grade is based on experts’ opinion or practical codes, whilst the adoption of performance-based approaches would allow to quantify the service life. To apply these models, when stainless steel reinforcement is used, the evaluation of the parameter which describes its performance when used in a chloride-bearing environment, i.e. the critical chloride threshold for the initiation of corrosion, is an indispensable requirement. This parameter cannot be easily determined since it is influenced by many factors and a standardised methodology for its evaluation has not been proposed yet. This paper describes the results obtained in an experimental research aimed at developing a test methodology which allows to evaluate the cumulative density function of the critical chloride threshold for the corrosion initiation. A test procedure based on mixed-in chloride and potentiostatic polarisation was proposed and applied to a duplex stainless steel reinforcement (1.4362). Corrective factors, which have to be applied in order to use these data for the design of structures in different exposure conditions, are discussed.     

Performance characteristics of surface coatings applied to concrete for control of reinforcement corrosion

Three elastomeric surface coatings were applied to naturally carbonated concrete components obtained from buildings that were suffering from reinforcement corrosion. Monitoring of the internal relative humidity of the concrete revealed that all three coating systems were able to exclude water from the carbonated components for a period of 2 years but only one of them was able to sustain its performance for a period of up to 5 years in an urban UK outdoor environment. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis suggested that the most successful coating was able to maintain its elastomeric properties over the required period of exposure and over a wide range of operational temperatures. It also had a relatively low but uniform bond strength to the concrete and this appeared to have a beneficial effect on its ability to accommodate movements of the substrate. Such coatings are considered capable of extending the service-lifetimes of carbonated reinforced concrete structures in cases where significant chloride contamination does not exist and where the only substantive route for moisture ingress is via the coating.     

Long-term durability of onshore coated concrete —chloride ion and carbonation effects

Enhancing service life of reinforced concrete (RC) structures located in marine environments is an issue of great interest for design engineers. The present research addresses the effect of surface coatings on service life of onshore RC structures. Long-term performance of concrete samples up to 88 months of exposure at natural marine environment was investigated. Two onshore exposure conditions, including soil and atmosphere and different types of concrete coatings were studied. Carbonation rates of up to 0.5 and 1.5 mm/year were observed at the first 88 months of exposure for soil and atmospheric samples, respectively. Surface chloride ion build-up and variation in chloride ion diffusion were monitored with respect to time, and service life was estimated. Based on the obtained results it is proposed to use the aliphatic acrylic and polyurethane coatings for enhancing the service life of concrete structures in the investigated exposure conditions.