磷的农业化学（Ⅴ）

根据土壤供肥性能、作物需肥特性和肥料效应,提出推荐施肥建议（或称平衡配方施肥）。其计算方法一般分为三大类,即地力分级分区配方法、目标产量配方法、肥料效应函数法。各种方法均有其优缺点,可因地制宜选用。化肥对粮食产量的增产率为５０％ 左右,但化肥费用占农业生产成本的２５％ 以上,占全部物资费用的５０％ 左右,必须对化肥的投入产出效果加以研究和优化,尽量选择经济最佳的施肥量。环境问题,已成为当今世界实行可持续发展战略中的重要议题。必须十分重视磷肥对水体富营养化,和磷肥中的氟、重金属、放射性元素、镉等对土壤的污染     

Appropriate technologies to replenish soil fertility in southern Africa

In southern Africa, soil nutrient reserves are being depleted because of continued nutrient mining without adequate replenishment. The consequent downward spiral of soil fertility has led to a corresponding decline in crop yields, food insecurity, food aid and environmental degradation. The central issue for improving agricultural productivity in southern Africa is how to build up and maintain soil fertility despite the low incomes of smallholder farmers and the increasing land and labour constraints they face. Under this review five main options namely: inorganic fertilizers, grain legumes, animal manures, integrated nutrient management and agroforestry options appropriate to smallholder farmers are presented. Issues addressed in the use of inorganic fertilizers are reduction in fertilizer costs, timely availability and use efficiency. Legumes can be used to diversify farm system productivity but this requires P and lime application to support better legume growth and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) as well as development of markets for various legume products. Manure availability and quality are central issues in increasing smallholder farm productivity and increasing its efficiency through proper handling and application methods. Integrated nutrient management of soil fertility by combined application of both inputs will increase use efficiency of inputs and reduce costs and increase profitability; but the challenge is often how to raise adequate amounts of either inorganic or organic inputs. Issues such as quality of inputs, nutrient balancing, labour to collect and transport organic inputs and their management need to be optimized. These are the challenges of adoption as are the scaling up of these options to millions of small-scale farmers.     

Fly ash—a potential source of soil amendment and a component of integrated plant nutrient supply system

In sub-tropical climate the high rainfall and high temperature is responsible for low soil productivity due to losses of bases and low organic matter content in soil. In acid lateritic soil low availability of P and high content of Al and Fe posses nutritional imbalance which is generally corrected by lime materials. Alkaline fly ash can be used in such problematic soil as an amended material and also it acts as source of plant nutrition for crop production. An attempt was made to develop an integrated plant nutrient supply system utilizing the fly ash along with other organic wastes like paper factory sludge, farm yard manure, crop residue and chemical fertilizers for rice-peanut cropping system. Direct and residual effects of fly ash were assessed based on crop yield, nutrient uptake and changes in soil characteristics. The application 10 t ha⁻¹ of fly ash in combination with organic sources and chemical fertilizer increased the grain yield and nutrient uptake of rice, and pod yield of peanut compared to chemical fertilizers alone. The heavy metal contents in plant and soil system was analyzed and found to remain below the permissible level. The results indicated that fly ash could be applied safely to tropical agro eco-systems for retaining productivity of acid lateritic soil.     

测土施肥与肥料创新

测土施肥是一个系统工程，肥料创新是其中非常重要的环节。掺混型肥料成为适应测土施肥推广的肥料产品，为业界所关注。我国人多地少，复种指数高，新型缓控释肥料与我国国情相结合的就是“一茬作物（只施）一次肥”。同时，测土施肥还需要施肥机械与施肥技术的创新，实现平衡施肥与肥料深施。涂层缓释一次肥以其全新的缓释理念和养分管理模式，成为适应测土施肥的肥料新产品。     

Farm typologies,soil fertility variability and nutrient management in smallholder farming in Sub-Saharan Africa

Farm typologies are a useful tool to assist in unpacking and understanding the wide diversity among smallholder farms to improve targeting of crop production intensification strategies. Sustainable crop production intensification will require the development of an array of nutrient management strategies tailored to farm-specific conditions, rather than blanket recommendations across diverse farms. This study reviewed key literature on smallholder farm typologies focusing on three countries (Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe), to gain insights on opportunities for crop production intensification, and the importance of developing farm-specific nutrient management practices. Investigations on farm typologies have done well in highlighting the fundamental differences between farm categories, with 3–5 typologies often adequate to represent the wide differences in resource endowment. Resource-endowed farmers have ready access to large quantities of manure and mineral fertilizers, which contribute to higher soil fertility and crop productivity on their farms. Resource-constrained households use little or no manure and mineral fertilizers, and have limited capacity to invest in labour-demanding soil fertility management technologies. These farmers often have to rely on off-farm opportunities for income that are largely limited to selling unskilled labour to their resource-endowed neighbors. The variability in management practices by farmers has resulted in three main soil fertility classes that can be used for targeting soil fertility management technologies, characterized by potential response to fertilizer application as: (1) low-responsive fertile fields that receive large additions of manure and fertilizer; (2) high-responsive infertile fields that receive moderate nutrient applications; (3) poorly responsive degraded soils cultivated for many years with little or no nutrient additions. The main conclusions drawn from the review are: (1) resource constrained farmers constitute the widest band across the three countries, with many of the farmers far below the threshold for sustainable maize production intensification and lacking capacity to invest in improved seed and fertilizer, (2) farm sizes and livestock ownership were key determinants for both farmer wealth status and farm productivity, and (3) soil organic carbon and available P were good indicators for predicting previous land management, that is also invariably linked to farmer resource endowment.     

Crop yield, nitrogen uptake and nitrate-nitrogen accumulation in soil as affected by 23 annual applications of fertilizer and manure in the rainfed region of Northwestern China

Application of chemical fertilizers and farmyard manure affects crop productivity and improves nutrient cycling within soil–plant systems, but the magnitude varies with soil-climatic conditions. A long-term (1982–2004) field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers and farmyard swine manure (M) on seed and straw yield, protein concentration, and N uptake in the seed and straw of 19-year winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and four-year oilseed (three-year canola, Brassica napus L. in 1987, 2000 and 2003; one-year flax, Linum usitatisimum L. in 1991), accumulation of nitrate-N (NO₃-N) in the soil profile (0–210 cm), and N balance sheet on a Huangmian soil (calcaric cambisols, FAO) near Tianshui, Gansu, China. The two main plot treatments were without and with farmyard swine manure (M); sub-plot treatments were control (Ck), N, NP, and NPK.␣The average seed yield decreased in the order MNPK ≥ MNP > MN ≥ NPK ≥ NP > M > N > Ck. The average effect of manure and fertilizers on seed yield was in the order M > N > P > K. The seed yield increase was 20.5% for M, 17.8% for N, 14.2% for P, and 2.9 % for K treatment. Seed yield response to fertilizers was much greater for N and P than for K, and it was much greater for no manure than for manure treatment. The response of straw yield to fertilization treatments was usually similar to that of seed yield. The N fertilizer and manure significantly increased protein concentration and N uptake plant. From the standpoint of increasing crop yield and seed quality, MNPK was the best fertilization strategy. Annual applications of N fertilizer and manure for 23 successive years had a marked effect on NO₃-N accumulation in the 0–210 cm soil profile. Accumulation of NO₃-N in the deeper soil layers with application of N fertilizer and manure is regarded as a potential danger, because of pollution of the soil environment and of groundwater. Application of N fertilizer in combination with P and/or K fertilizers reduced residual soil NO₃-N significantly compared with N fertilizer alone in both no manure and manure plots. The findings suggest that integrated and balanced application of N, P, and K fertilizers and␣manure at proper rates is important for protecting soil and groundwater from potential NO₃-N pollution and for maintaining high crop productivity in the rainfed region of Northwestern China.     

一种水溶性硅肥的制备及其应用

化肥的大量施用不仅导致土壤硬化,而且造成了较大的经济损失和严重的环境污染.硅肥有利于促进作物生长和改善土壤环境,在农业生产中发挥着越来越重要的作用.介绍了一种新型水溶性硅肥的制备方法和应用效果,实践证明,水溶性硅肥能显著提高作物的产量、品质和抗倒伏性,施用效果良好.     

世界硫需求及硫肥状况

阐述世界硫肥的需求状况:到2012年世界农业缺硫量预计每年将达1 100万t,而亚洲和美洲将成为全球最严重的缺硫地区。环境污染控制、集约化农业生产以及低硫高浓度肥料的使用,加剧了全球范围内土壤缺硫状况。缺硫日益成为农业可持续发展和提高肥料利用率的限制因素之一,但也刺激农用硫肥的需求,为肥料工业开发新技术和新产品、开拓市场提供了契机。有3种硫肥,分别是:(1)硫酸盐基;(2)硫磺基;(3)液态硫基,其中硫酸盐基占绝大部分,其具有较好的理化特性,可直接、均衡为作物提供多种养分。本文介绍含硫肥料的种类、各种肥料的性能及目前世界上开发多种新型含硫肥料产品来适应和满足不同作物、土壤的需要。     

Agronomic and environmental aspects of phosphate fertilizers varying in source and solubility: an update review

This review discusses and summarizes the latest reports regarding the agronomic utilization and potential environmental effects of different types of phosphate (P) fertilizers that vary in solubility. The agronomic effectiveness of P fertilizer can be influenced by the following factors: (1) water and citrate solubility; (2) chemical composition of solid water-soluble P (WSP) fertilizers; (3) fluid and solid forms of WSP fertilizers; and (4) chemical reactions of P fertilizers in soils. Non-conventional P fertilizers are compared with WSP fertilizers in terms of P use efficiency in crop production. Non-conventional P fertilizers include directly applied phosphate rock (PR), partially acidulated PR (PAPR), and compacted mixtures of PR and WSP. The potential impacts of the use of P fertilizers from both conventional (fully acidulated) and non-conventional sources are discussed in terms of (1) contamination of soils and plants with toxic heavy metals, such as cadmium (Cd), and (2) the contribution of P runoff to eutrophication. Best practices of integrated nutrient management should be implemented when applying P fertilizers to different cropping systems. The ideal management system will use appropriate sources, application rates, timing, and placement in consideration of soil properties. The goal of P fertilizer use should be to optimize crop production without causing environmental problems.     

Isotopic assessment of soil phosphorus fertility and evaluation of rock phosphates as phosphorus sources for plants in subtropical China

Soil phosphorus (P) deficiency is a major factor limiting crop productivity in many tropical and subtropical soils. Due to the acidic nature of these soils, rock phosphate (RP)-based P fertilizers that are cheaper than manufactured water-soluble P fertilizers can be an attractive alternative under certain conditions. Assessment of the efficacy of these alternative P fertilizers and a rational management of local P resources for sustainable agricultural production require an understanding of the dynamics of P in the soil–plant system and the interactions of various P sources in soils and monitoring of soil available P levels. The present work was conducted to test the applicability of the ³²P isotopic kinetic method to assess the soil P fertility status and evaluate the agronomic effectiveness of local rock phosphates in subtropical China. A series of experiments was carried out in the laboratory, greenhouse and field conditions with the following specific objectives: (a) to evaluate the suitability of this isotopic kinetic method in evaluating soil P fertility in 32 soil samples collected across southern China, (b) to test and further develop chemical extraction methods for routine soil P testing, (c) to monitor the dissolution kinetics of local low to medium grade rock phosphate sources and their effect on soil properties and (d) to evaluate their agronomic effectiveness in greenhouse and field experiments. Since most of the studied soils had very low concentrations of soluble P and high P-fixing capacities, the isotopic kinetic method was found unsuitable for evaluating soil P fertility and to predict plant P uptake. In contrast, the proposed chemical extraction method (NaHCO₃-NH₄F) predicted very well plant P uptake, suggesting that this extraction method can be routinely used to evaluate soil bioavailable P in similar soils in subtropical China. From the incubation study, it was found that although the local low to medium grade RPs were inferior to the reactive NCPR in increasing soil available P levels, they have the potential to improve soil chemical properties. Field experiments indeed demonstrated that the medium grade Jinxiang RP significantly increased crop yield, suggesting that local low to medium grade RPs could be used as P sources to provide P to plants and also to improve soil chemical properties. Overall, these results provide important information for a rational management of P resources for sustainable agriculture in subtropical China.     

Combining hill-placed manure and mineral fertilizer enhances maize productivity and profitability in northern Benin

Throughout much of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), maize production is characterized by low productivity due to the scarce availability and use of external inputs and recurrent droughts exacerbated by climate variability. Within the integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) framework, there is thus a need for optimizing the application of fertilizers and manure to better use the limited nutrient resources and increase crop yield and farmer income. An on-station experiment was conducted in Northern Benin over a 4-year period to evaluate the effect of hill placement of mineral fertilizer and manure on maize yields and soil chemical properties. The treatments consisted in the combination of three rates of manure (0 (NM), 3 (3M) and 6 (6M) Mg ha^?1) and three levels of fertilizer (0% (NF), 50% (50F) and 100% (100F) of the rate recommended by extension (76 kg N + 13.1 kg P + 24.9 K ha^?1)). On average across the fertilizer rates, hill-placement of manure significantly improved soil organic carbon content, available P and exchangeable K after 4 years by up to 124, 166 and 77%, respectively, compared to the initial values. As a result of the nutrient inputs and improved soil properties, yields increased steadily over time for all manure and fertilizer combinations. Value-cost ratios and benefit–cost ratios were >2 and generally as good or even better for treatments involving 50F compared to NF or 100F. Although applying half the recommended rate of fertilizer without manure as currently done by many farmers appears to make economic sense, this practice is unlikely to be sustainable in the long term. Substituting 50F for 3M or complementing 50F with 3M are two possible strategies that are compatible with the precepts of ISFM and provide returns on investment at least as good as the current practice. However, this will require greater manure production, made possible in part by the increased stover yields, and access to means of transportation to deliver the manure to the fields.     

Using mucuna and P fertilizer to increase maize grain yield and N fertilizer use efficiency in the coastal savanna of Togo

To reduce severe soil degradation associated with agriculture an intensified land-use system is being promoted in West African countries. Most soils of the West African savanna zones are so poor that the efficiency of mineral fertilizers, if applied, is very low. For this reason and because of their high cost and unavailability, many small-scale farmers are reluctant to apply fertilizer. This work investigates a fertilizer management strategy using integrated soil fertility management with a leguminous cover crop (mucuna) so as to improve the soil fertility and increase the use efficiency of fertilizer. The experiment was conducted in the coastal savanna of Togo at Djaka Kopé. The aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of mucuna short fallow (MSF) in increasing maize grain yield through an improved use efficiency of mineral fertilizer. A 2-year maize–mucuna relay intercropping system was compared with continuous sole maize cropping. Fertilizer treatments were factorial combinations of 0, 50 and 100 kg nitrogen (N) ha^–1 and 0, 20 and 40 kg phosphorus (P) ha^–1. While maize grain yield was significantly increased by N fertilization, P did not show any important effect on grain yield. With no N and P applied, grain yield after MSF was on average 40% (572 kg ha^–1) higher than without. The response to N was much greater than the response to MSF, indicating that N was undoubtedly the key element for maize yield building. P fertilization and MSF together positively influenced the apparent N recovery fraction (NRF). N uptake alone did not reflect on its own the yield obtained, and the relationship between grain yield and N uptake is shifted by MSF, with the grain yield increase per unit of N uptake being higher with than without MSF. Combining MSF and P fertilization may therefore lead to improved N use efficiency, making the application of fertilizer N (lower rates) more attractive to small-scale farmers.     

Higher and better yields with less environmental pollution in Egypt through balanced fertilizer use

Nitrogen use per unit area in Egyptian agriculture is over 300 kg ha^–1. An annual average increase of about 2% till year 2000 was estimated. Fertilizers use is characterised by excessive N application, moderate P use and neglection of K and micronutrients. Consequently, nutrient imbalance occurs in crop plants. Subsidising N fertilizers resulted in their misuse and increasing losses. Efficiency of N use in different areas and crops is low. High nitrate concentrations were detected in drainage as well as ground water. Subsidy was removed and fertilizers handling was left to the free market in 1992/93, which resulted in drastic price increases. It could be demonstrated for many years and in farmers fields that yields can be considerably increased (20%) through balanced fertilizers use based on soil testing and plant analysis and adjusted according to the prevailing farming system, leading to more return and less N-use. Use of micronutrients foliar fertilizers leads to increase in root growth and higher uptake of macronutrients. Use of relatively high rates of fertilizers is still a must, however it should be optimised to obtain the highest possible efficiency. Making crop and location specific fertilizer recommendations available to farmers helps in increasing high quality yields, which results in high economic benefits, keeping agricultural production sustainable and decreasing pollution.     

Factors affecting the agronomic effectiveness of phosphate rock for direct application

Phosphorus (P) is critically needed to improve soil fertility for sustainable crop production in large areas of developing countries. In recent years, phosphate rock (PR) for direct application has been tested in tropical acid soils as a potential alternative to conventional water-soluble P fertilizers like single superphosphate (SSP) and triple superphosphate (TSP). Some developing countries have PR deposits which, if used to supplement other imported P fertilizers, would allow a saving of much needed foreign exchange. Solubility of P fertilizers is not the only criterion in selection of the most suitable P fertilizer. This paper discusses the results of experiments to compare the relative agronomic effectiveness (RAE) of various PR sources with respect to SSP or TSP as influenced by four important factors: PR sources, soil properties, management practices, and crop species. Under certain conditions, PRs can be agronomically effective.     

Managing soil fertility diversity to enhance resource use efficiencies in smallholder farming systems: a case from Murewa District,Zimbabwe

Smallholder farms in sub-Saharan African exhibit substantial heterogeneity in soil fertility, and nutrient resource allocation strategies that address this variability are required to increase nutrient use efficiencies. We applied the Field-scale resource Interactions, use Efficiencies and Long-term soil fertility Development (FIELD) model to explore consequences of various manure and fertilizer application strategies on crop productivity and soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics on farms varying in resource endowment in a case study village in Murewa District, Zimbabwe. FIELD simulated a rapid decline in SOC and maize yields when native woodlands were cleared for maize cultivation without fertilizer inputs coupled with removal of crop residues. Applications of 10 t manure ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ for 10 years were required to restore maize productivity to the yields attainable under native woodland. Long-term application of manure at 5 and 3 t ha⁻¹ resulted in SOC contents comparable to zones of high and medium soil fertility observed on farms of wealthy cattle owners. Targeting manure application to restore SOC to 50–60% of contents under native woodlands was sufficient to increase productivity to 90% of attainable yields. Short-term increases in crop productivity achieved by reallocating manure to less fertile fields were short-lived on sandy soils. Preventing degradation of the soils under intensive cultivation is difficult, particularly in low input farming systems, and attention should be paid to judicious use of the limited nutrient resources to maintain a degree of soil fertility that supports good crop response to fertilizer application.     

有机农业不应排斥化肥

阐述了有机农业、绿色农业不应排斥化肥的原因。合理施用化肥不仅可使农产品增产、改善品质,我国政府也大力倡导科学施肥,而且化肥支撑了增长人口的生存。如要继续科学高效地使用耕地,化肥仍将是重要物资;有机肥取代化肥尚待时日,难点较多;即使进入循环经济、未来社会,仍将会增加对肥料的需求,因此应尽快纠正有机农业等排斥化肥的状况。     

Reducing interflow nitrogen loss from hillslope cropland in a purple soil hilly region in southwestern China

Interflow related nitrogen (N) loss from hillslope cropland is a global issue of concern. Field experiments were carried out in purple soil to study how to reduce interflow related N loss by substituting organic fertilizers for mineral fertilizers. Study conditions were engineered where identical amounts of N were applied to four different fertilization regimes: N fertilizer only, mineral fertilizers (MF), mineral fertilizers with livestock manure (MFL), and mineral fertilizers with crop straw (MFS). Results showed that total MFL and MFS interflow N loss decreased by 44.1 and 36.9?%, respectively, compared to the MF fertilization regime, using identical amounts of N. Furthermore, crop yields for the MFL and MFS fertilization regimes were higher compared to the MF fertilization regime. These findings can result in an important new means in controlling interflow N loss from hillslope cropland by substituting organic fertilizers for a port of mineral fertilizers, using identical amounts of organic fertilizer.     

Some aspects of the role of organic matter in sustainable intensified arable farming systems in the West-African semi-arid-tropics (SAT)

In this paper the role of organic manure in intensified farming systems in the SAT of West-Africa is discussed. Different aspects are treated: its function as a source of plant nutrients, its effects on soil physical and on soil chemical properties. It is concluded that often the major effect is through increased nutrient supply, but that in combination with chemical fertilizer — particularly nitrogen — it serves to counteract the negative effects of these fertilizers, particularly acidification and the increased removal of nutrients other than the one applied in the fertilizer.Insufficient organic material appears to be available to realize the required production increase and prevent the negative effects of nitrogen fertilizers. However, application of chemical fertilizer alone can lead to sustainable production systems provided export and losses of all nutrient elements are sufficiently compensated and acidification is avoided by using the correct type of nitrogen fertilizer, possibly in combination with liming.     

Effect of phosphorus fertilization on Zn and Cd contents in soil and corn plants

The main purpose of the trial established in 1965/66 has been to monitor the effect the use of NPK fertilizers has on yields of cultivated plants and the maintenance of soil fertility. The trial which included 20 fertilization treatments, covers a total of 8 ha and is divided into four fields (2 ha each), where four crop species (wheat, corn, sugar beet, and sunflower) are grown in rotation. The effect of a continuous use of increasing P fertilizer rates on Zn and Cd contents in the soil and corn plants were monitored in 5 different fertilization treatments from the above trial on a chernozem soil. The application of increasing P rates did not decrease the content of available Zn in the soil. However, the uptake of Zn by corn plants (stalk and leaves) was significantly higher in the unfertilized check plot than plots fertilized with increasing P rates. Although P fertilizers are considered a major anthropogenic source of soil pollution with Cd, we found that during the 30-year trial there was no significant increase in the plots treated with 50, 100 and 150 kg P2O5 ha-1 in comparation to the unfertilized check plot.     

Controlled-release fertilizers to increase efficiency of nutrient use and minimize environmental degradation - A review

Total world consumption of fertilizer N, P₂O₅, and K₂O in 1990/1991 was 78, 37, and 26 million tons per annum, respectively, with a projected yearly increase of demand of about 2 to 3%. Trends in crop production (maize and wheat) in the last four decades show that N application rates increased about 15 times whereas its accumulation in grain increased only 3 to 4 times. At the same time nutrient recovery by crops remained relatively low (e.g. about 50% for N). This represents a potentially alarming situation from environmental, economic and resource conservation points of view and indicates an urgent need for improving efficiency of fertilizer use. Anticipated benefits from slow/controlled release fertilizers (SRF/CRF) are addressed through two main processes: a. nutrient availability in the plant-soil system as affected by the interaction/competition between: plant roots, soil microorganisms, chemical reactions and pathways for loss; and b. matching nutrient release with plant demand. The various aspects of fertilization and environmental hazards associated with SRF/CRF and factors affecting nutrient use efficiency (NUE) are discussed in the light of these controlling processes. Environmental aspects include: pollution by nitrate, phosphate, and emission/volatilization of N₂O or NH₃; quality of food and fibers; and factors affecting soil degradation. Agronomic or physiologic aspects include: reduced losses of nutrients, labour saving, reduction of specific stress or toxicity, increased availability of nutrients and induction of synergistic effects between specific chemical forms of nutrients (e.g. interaction of mixed NH₄/NO₃ nutrition with K, effects of physiological acidification of the rhizosphere on P and Fe availability etc.). Despite the environmental and agronomic benefits offered by SRF/CRF their practical use in agriculture is still very limited. Possible measures which may encourage their use in practice are: a better assessment of expected benefits; attainment of improved technologies or concepts for producing more efficient and less expensive SRF/CRF; optimal design of fertilizer compositions to induce synergistic effects; better understanding of the mechanisms which control nutrient release; construction of conceptual and mathematical models for predicting release rates and patterns under both laboratory and field conditions, for supporting the technologist, farmer and environmentalist in their decision making.