Climatic models to predict occurrence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize

Although forecasting Fusarium infections have useful implications, it may be argued that forecasting Fusarium toxins is more useful to help reduce their entry into the food chain. Several disease incidence models have been commercialized for wheat, but only one toxin prediction model from Ontario, Canada, "DONcast", has been validated extensively and commercialized to date for wheat, and another has been proposed for maize. In the development of these predictive tools, the variation in toxin levels associated with year and agronomic effects was estimated from simple linear models using wheat and maize samples taken from farm fields. In wheat, environment effects accounted for 48% of the variation in deoxynivalenol (DON) across all fields, followed by variety (27%), and previous crop (14 to 28%). In maize, hybrid accounted for 25% of the variation of either DON or fumonisin, followed by environment (12%), and when combined 42% of the variability was accounted for. The robust site-specific, DON forecast model accounted for up to 80% of the variation in DON, and has been used commercially for 5 years in Canada. Forecasting DON and fumonisins in maize is more difficult, because of its greater exposure to infection, the role of wounding in infection, the more important role of hybrid susceptibility, and the vast array of uncharacterized hybrids available in the marketplace. Nevertheless, using data collected from controlled experiments conducted in Argentina and the Philippines, a model was developed to predict fumonisin concentration using insect damage and weather variables, accounting for 82% of the variability of fumonisins. Using mycotoxins as a measure of disease outcome, as opposed to disease symptoms, offers a more robust prediction of mycotoxin risk, and it accounts for mycotoxin accumulation that occurs frequently in the absence of any change in Fusarium symptoms.     

Naturally occurring oestrogens in foods--a review

This review is concerned with the presence of naturally occurring oestrogens in food plants and processed foods. Particular emphasis is placed on isoflavones and coumestans, both of which are true plant oestrogens, and the resorcylic acid lactones, more correctly classified as fungal oestrogens. The metabolism and mode of action of these compounds is discussed and their biological potencies, determined in both in vivo and in vitro studies, described. Current methods of analysis are indicated and the levels of these oestrogens in food plants, processed foods and foodstuffs are presented. Botanical, environmental or technological factors affecting the possible intake of plant and fungal oestrogens are mentioned and the hazard associated with such intake is compared with that originating from other dietary or medicinal hormonally active substances. Indications are given of the wide range of common food plants which have been reported to possess oestrogenic (uterotropic) activity, although it is emphasized that in general further work is necessary to substantiate these claims and to confirm the identities of the biologically active principles which have in some cases been proposed. In the concluding section suggestions are made for additional research considered important or necessary in this interesting area.     

Naturally occurring contamination in the Mancos Shale

Some uranium mill tailings disposal cells were constructed on dark-gray shale of the Upper Cretaceous Mancos Shale. Shale of this formation contains contaminants similar to those in mill tailings. To establish the contributions derived from the Mancos, we sampled 51 locations in Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Many of the groundwater samples were saline with nitrate, selenium, and uranium concentrations commonly exceeding 250,?000, 1000, and 200 μg/L, respectively. Higher concentrations were limited to groundwater associated with shale beds, but were not correlated with geographic area, stratigraphic position, or source of water. The elevated concentrations suggest that naturally occurring contamination should be considered when evaluating groundwater cleanup levels. At several locations, seep water was yellow or red, caused in part by dissolved organic carbon concentrations up to 280 mg/L. Most seeps had (234)U to (238)U activity ratios greater than 2, indicating preferential leaching of (234)U. Seeps were slightly enriched in (18)O relative to the meteoric water line, indicating limited evaporation. Conceptually, major ion chemical reactions are dominated by calcite dissolution following proton release from pyrite oxidation and subsequent exchange by calcium for sodium residing on clay mineral exchange sites. Contaminants are likely released from organic matter and mineral surfaces during weathering.     

Natural occurrence of Fusarium toxins in peanut,sorghum and maize from Mysore (India)

Peanut, sorghum and maize samples were collected from the wholesale market in Mysore, India, over a period of one year (October 1984 to September 1985). The samples were analysed for the natural occurrence of T-2 toxin (T-2), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and zearalenone by thin-layer chromatography, dermal toxicity test and gas chromatography. Of the total number of peanut samples analysed, 6.9% were positive for the toxic trichothecene(s) (T-2, up to 38.89 mg kg^?1; DAS, up to 2.03 mg kg^?1); 4.8% of total sorghum samples analysed contained T-2 up to 15 mg kg^?1. Zearalenone was not found in any of the samples tested, and no toxins were detected in any of the maize samples. Samples marketed during winter and summer periods were contaminated with the toxins. All the toxin-positive samples except one peanut sample were found in produce stored for more than a week.     

酿造原料及啤酒中镰刀菌毒素的研究进展

镰刀菌毒素是镰刀菌产生的次级代谢产物,能够通过感染酿造原料带入到啤酒中,从而时啤酒品质和人的健康造成威胁.为此,各国都制定了标准的检测方法和严格的限量标准.本文总结阐述了国内外有关啤酒酿造原辅料和成品啤酒中存在的镰刀菌毒素的性质、感染情况和检测方法等方面的研究进展,并对其在啤酒中的研究应用前景进行了展望.     

Naturally occurring mastitis disrupts developmental competence of bovine oocytes

We examined the effects of naturally occurring mastitis on bovine oocyte developmental competence in vitro. Specifically, we investigated the effects of intramammary infection on the ovarian pool of oocytes (i.e., follicle-enclosed oocytes) and their ability to undergo in vitro maturation, fertilization, and further development to the blastocyst stage. Culled Holstein cows (n = 50) from 9 commercial dairy farms in Israel were allotted to 3 groups according to somatic cell count (SCC) records of the last 3 monthly milk tests as well as of quarter samples collected before slaughter: (1) low SCC (n = 7), (2) medium SCC (n = 16), or (3) high SCC (n = 27). Means of SCC values differed among low-, medium-, and high-SCC groups: 148,000, 311,000 and 1,813,000 cell/mL milk, respectively. Milk yield and days in milk did not differ among the 3 groups. Bacterial isolates included coagulase-negative staphylococci, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, or no bacteria found. Ovaries were collected at the abattoir and brought to the laboratory. Cumulus oocyte complexes were recovered separately from each cow and subjected individually to in vitro maturation and fertilization, followed by 8 d in culture. The number of aspirated oocytes did not differ among groups, with a range of 17 to 21 oocytes per cow. The proportion of oocytes that cleaved into 2- to 4-cell-stage embryos (86.1 ± 3.4%) did not differ among groups. In contrast, mean percentages of embryos developed to the blastocyst stage on d 7 and 8 after fertilization were less in both medium- and-high SCC groups than in the low-SCC group (5.6 ± 2.3 and 4.1 ± 1.8 vs. 18.1 ± 4.6%, respectively). Additional analysis indicated that cleavage and blastocyst-formation rates did not differ among the bacterial types in the low-, medium-, and high-SCC groups. These are the first results to demonstrate that naturally occurring mastitis disrupts the developmental competence of the ovarian pool of oocytes, (i.e., oocytes at the germinal vesicle stage). The disruption was associated with elevation of SCC rather than bacterial type. The results may provide a partial explanation for the low fertility of cows that have contracted mastitic pathogens before insemination.     

Naturally occurring benzoic,sorbic, and propionic acid in vegetables

ABSTRACT

Benzoic, sorbic and propionic acid are used as preservatives in foods and can also be naturally present in processed foods. The levels of preservatives in 939 vegetables were determined. Benzoic and sorbic acid were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode-array detector and further confirmed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, whereas propionic acid was analysed using a gas chromatography-flame ionization detector and further confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Benzoic and propionic acid were found in 10.9% and 36.2%, respectively, of the samples. In contrast, sorbic acid was not found in any of the samples. The highest amounts of benzoic and propionic acid were found in perilla leaves (0.33?298 mg kg^–1) and ginseng (<LOD?32.8 mg kg^–1), respectively. The background concentration ranges of naturally occurring preservatives in vegetables determined in this study could be used for inspection services of standard criteria to address consumer complaints or trade disputes.     

Natural occurrence of Fusarium toxins in soy food marketed in Germany

A total of 45 samples of soy food including whole beans, roasted soy nuts, flour and flakes, textured soy protein, tofu, proteinisolate including infant formulas and fermented products (soy sauce) were randomly collected in food and health food stores and analysed for Fusarium toxins. A spectrum of 13 trichothecenes of the A-type as well as of the B-type were determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, zearalenone (ZEA), alpha- and beta-zearalenol (alpha- and beta-ZOL) by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence and UV-detection. Detection limits ranged between 1 and 19 microg/kg. At least one of the toxins investigated was detected in 11 out of a total of 45 samples of soy food belonging to different commodities. Scirpentriol (SCIRP), 15-monoacetoxyscirpenol, 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol, T-2 tetraol, HT-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON), 15- and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, ZEA, alpha- and beta-ZOL were detected in at least one sample, T-2 triol, T-2, NEO, NIV and FUS-X were not detected in any sample. Five out of 11 samples were positive for one toxin, one sample for two, three, six or seven toxins, two samples for 5 toxins, demonstrating the possibility of a contamination of soy food with a spectrum of Fusarium toxins. SCIRP, DON and ZEA were found up to 108, 260 and 214 microg/kg, the other toxins did not exceed 61 microg/kg. A first insight into the contamination of soy food with a broad spectrum of Fusarium toxins is provided.     

Naturally occurring biofilms on alfalfa and other types of sprouts

Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine the cotyledons, hypocotyls, and roots of alfalfa, broccoli, clover, and sunflower sprouts purchased from retail outlets as well as alfalfa sprouts grown in the laboratory using a tray system equipped with automatic irrigation. Biofilms were observed on all plant parts of the four types of commercially grown sprouts. Biofilms were also commonly observed on alfalfa sprouts grown in the laboratory by 2 days of growth. Rod-shaped bacteria of various sizes were predominant on all sprouts examined both as free-living cells and as components of biofilms. Occasionally, cocci-shaped bacteria as well as yeast cells were also present in biofilms. The microbes contained in the biofilms appeared to be attached to each other and to the plant surface by a matrix, most likely composed of bacterial exopolysaccharides. Biofilms were most abundant and of the largest dimensions on cotyledons, sometimes covering close to the entire cotyledon surface (approximately 2 mm in length). Naturally occurring biofilms on sprouts may afford protected colonization sites for human pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7, making their eradication with antimicrobial compounds difficult.     

Naturally occurring inhibitors against the formation of advanced glycation end-products

Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are the final products of the non-enzymatic reaction between reducing sugars and amino groups in proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Recently, the accumulation of AGEs in vivo has been implicated as a major pathogenic process in diabetic complications, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and normal aging. The early recognition of AGEs can ascend to the late 1960s when a non-enzymatic glycation process was found in human body which is similar to the Maillard reaction. To some extent, AGEs can be regarded as products of the Maillard reaction. This review firstly introduces the Maillard reaction, the formation process of AGEs and harmful effects of AGEs to human health. As AGEs can cause undesirable diseases or disorders, it is necessary to investigate AGE inhibitors to offer a potential therapeutic approach for the prevention of diabetic or other pathogenic complications induced by AGEs. Typical effective AGE inhibitors with different inhibition mechanisms are also reviewed in this paper. Both synthetic compounds and natural products have been evaluated as inhibitors against the formation of AGEs. However, considering toxic or side effects of synthetic molecules present in clinical trials, natural products are more promising to be developed as potent AGE inhibitors.     

Contents of Fusarium toxins in Finnish and imported grains and feeds

The aim of the present study was to investigate the levels of trichothecenes in representative samples of Finnish and imported cereals and feeds from the 1987 and 1988 crops. Trichothecene concentrations were determined in samples as trimethylsilylether derivatives by a gas chromatograph equipped with a mass selective detector (GC-MSD) using selected ion monitoring (SIM) which proved to be a reliable and sufficiently sensitive technique. Representative samples of Finnish and imported oats, wheat, barley, rye, maize gluten, soy granules, rapeseed, turnip rapeseed, fish meal, poultry feed and pig feed were analysed employing 19-nortestosterone as an internal standard. Almost all grain and feed samples contained deoxynivalenol (DON) from 7 to 300 micrograms/kg and smaller amounts (13-120 micrograms/kg) of 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-AcDON). The most toxic trichothecenes, T-2, HT-2 toxins and nivalenol (NIV) and also zeralenone (ZEN) were found at low concentrations in some samples. Six lots of oats containing 1.3-2.6 mg/kg of DON and 0.2-0.6 mg/kg of 3-AcDON were found in the Finnish grain samples. Silo samples of almost all imported grains contained DON but at levels below 50 micrograms/kg. Imported grains contained no other trichothecenes. DON, 3-AcDON and ZEN were found in imported feedstuffs at low concentrations.     

Updated survey of Fusarium species and toxins in Finnish cereal grains

The aim of the project was to produce updated information during 2005–14 on the Fusarium species found in Finnish cereal grains, and the toxins produced by them, as the last comprehensive survey study of Fusarium species and their toxins in Finland was carried out at the turn of the 1960s and the 1970s. Another aim was to use the latest molecular and chemical methods to investigate the occurrence and correlation of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins in Finland. The most common Fusarium species found in Finland in the FinMyco project 2005 and 2006 were F. avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. poae, F. sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae. F. avenaceum was the most dominant species in barley, spring wheat and oat samples. The occurrence of F. culmorum and F. graminearum was high in oats and barley. Infection by Fusarium fungi was the lowest in winter cereal grains. The incidence of Fusarium species in 2005 was much higher than in 2006 due to weather conditions. F. langsethiae has become much more common in Finland since 2001. F. graminearum has also risen in the order of importance. A highly significant correlation was found between Fusarium graminearum DNA and deoxynivalenol (DON) levels in Finnish oats, barley and wheat. When comparing the FinMyco data in 2005–06 with the results of the Finnish safety monitoring programme for 2005–14, spring cereals were noted as being more susceptible to infection by Fusarium fungi and the formation of toxins. The contents of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and the frequency of exceptionally high DON concentrations all increased in Finland during 2005–14. Beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs) and moniliformin (MON) were also very common contaminants of Finnish grains in 2005–06. Climate change is leading to warmer weather, and this may indicate more changes in Finnish Fusarium mycobiota and toxin contents and profiles in the near future.     

Fusarium toxins in wheat flour collected in an area in southwest Germany

A total of 60 samples of wheat flour were collected during the first 6 months of 1999 from mills and food stores in an area in southwest Germany. Samples included whole-grain and two types of white flour with these three groups characterized by a high, medium and low ash content. The contents of deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), 3- and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2) and fusarenon-X (FUS-X) were determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, and those of zearalenone (ZEA), alpha- and beta-zearalenol (alpha- and beta-ZOL) by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. FUS-X, alpha- and beta-ZOL were not detected in any sample. Based on incidence and level, DON was the predominant toxin followed by NIV and ZEA for all three flour types. The overall degree of toxin contamination was lower with decreasing ash content. This suggests a localization of the toxins analyzed primarily in the outer parts of the original wheat kernels. The median DON content was significantly (P<0.05) higher for wheat flour originating from wheat of conventional than of organic production.     

Survey of Fusarium toxins in foodstuffs of plant origin marketed in Germany

A total of 219 samples of foodstuffs of plant origin, consisting of grain-based food, pseudocereals and gluten-free food as well as vegetables, fruits, oilseeds and nuts, were randomly collected during 2000 and 2001 in food and health food stores. A spectra of 13 trichothecene toxins including diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), 15-monoacetoxyscirpenol (MAS), scirpentriol (SCIRP), T-2 and HT-2 toxins (T-2, HT-2), T-2 triol, T-2 tetraol, neosolaniol (NEO) of the A-type as well as deoxynivalenol (DON), 3- and 15-acetyl-DON (3-, 15-ADON), nivalenol (NIV), and fusarenon-X (FUS-X) of the B-type were determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Analysis of zearalenone (ZEA), alpha- and beta-zearalenol (alpha- and beta-ZOL) was made by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence and UV-detection. Detection limits ranged between 1 and 19 microg/kg. Out of 84 samples of cereal-based including gluten-free foods, 60 samples were positive for at least one of the toxins DON, 15-ADON, 3-ADON, NIV, T-2, HT-2, T-2 tetraol and ZEA, with incidences at 57%, 13%, 1%, 10%, 12%, 37%, 4% and 38%, respectively, whereas SCIRP and its derivatives MAS and DAS, T-2 triol, Fus-X as well as alpha- and beta-ZOL were not detected in any sample of this subgroup. Contents of DON ranged between 8 and 389 microg/kg, for all other toxins determined concentrations were below 100 microg/kg. The pseudocereals amaranth, quinoa and buckwheat were free of the toxins investigated. Ten of 85 samples of vegetables and fruits were toxin positive. ZEA and the type A trichothecenes MAS, SCIRP, DAS, HT-2 were detected in 7, 3, 2, 1 and 1 samples, respectively. Out of 35 samples of oilseeds and nuts, 7 samples were toxin positive. HT-2, T-2 and ZEA were detected in 4, 3 and 4 samples, respectively. In vegetables and fruits as well as in oilseeds and nuts, toxin levels were below 50 microg/kg. None of the B-type trichothecenes analysed was found for both subgroups.     

Assessment of trichothecene chemotypes of Fusarium culmorum occurring in Europe

Fusarium trichothecenes are a group of fungal toxic metabolites whose synthesis requires the action of gene products from three different genetic loci. We evaluated, both chemically and by PCR assays, 55 isolates of Fusarium culmorum from eight European countries and different host plants for their ability to produce trichothecenes. Specific sequences in the Tri6-Tri5 intergenic region were associated with deoxynivalenol production. Sequences in the Tri3 gene were also associated with deoxynivalenol production and specific primer sets were selected from these sequences to identify 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol or 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotypes. Specific sequences in the Tri5 and Tri7 genes were associated with the nivalenol chemotype but not with the deoxynivalenol chemotype. Two chemotypes were identified by chemical analysis and confirmed by PCR. Strains of the nivalenol chemotype produced nivalenol (up to 260 µg g^-1) and 4-acetyl-nivalenol (up to 60 µg g^-1), strains with the 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotype produced deoxynivalenol (up to 1700 µg g^-1) and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (up to 600 µg g^-1). Three strains of F. culmorum from France, previously reported as 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol producers, had the 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotype. The results are consistent with data from other European countries on the occurrence of the nivalenol and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotypes and provide support for the hypothesis that European isolates of F. culmorum producing deoxynivalenol belong only to the 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotype. The production of trichothecenes from F. culmorum isolates from walnut (3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol chemotype) and leek (nivalenol chemotype) is reported for the first time.     

Occurrence of Fusarium species and trichothecenes in Nigerian maize

A total of 180 maize samples meant for human consumption from four maize-producing states of southwestern Nigeria were screened for twelve major Fusarium mycotoxins (trichothecenes). Mycological examination of the samples showed that Fusarium verticillioides was the most commonly isolated fungi (71%), followed by F. sporotrichioides (64%), F. graminearum (32%), F. pallidoroseum (15%), F. compactum (12%), F. equiseti (9%), F. acuminatum (8%), F. subglutinans (4%) and F. oxysporum (1%). The trichothecenes include deoxynivalenol (DON), 3, mono-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-AcDON), 15, mono-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-AcDON), nivalenol (NIV), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), neosolaniol (NEO), T-2 toxin (T-2), T-2 tetraol and T-2 triol, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), MAS-monoacetoxyscirpenol (MAS) and fusarenone-X. Quantification was by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy (HPLC/MS); the detection limits for each of the mycotoxins varied between 20 and 200 microg kg(-1). Sixty six samples (36.3%) were contaminated with trichothecenes, DON (mean: 226.2 microg kg(-1); range: 9.6-745.1 microg kg(-1)), 3-AcDON (mean: 17.3 microg kg(-1); range: 0.7-72.4 microg kg(-1)) and DAS (mean: 16.0 microg kg(-1); range: 1.0-51.0 microg kg(-1)) were detected in 22%, 17% and 9% of total samples respectively. There were no 15-AcDON, NIV, HT-2, NEO, T-2, T-2 tetraol, T-2 triol, MAS and fusarenone-X detected. This is the first comprehensive report about the natural occurrence of DON, AcDON and DAS in maize for direct human consumption in Nigeria.     

镰刀菌毒素生殖发育毒性研究进展

镰刀菌毒素是指镰刀菌属的毒性代谢产物,其中单端孢霉烯族毒素是粮食中最常见的一类污染性镰刀菌毒素,可以引起人或动物急性、慢性毒性作用,部分霉菌毒素已证明具有致突变性及致癌性。流行病学及体内、体外实验研究结果表明,部分镰刀菌毒素对人或动物生殖细胞、受孕、妊娠、分娩、哺乳等亲代生殖机能以及对其子代胚胎-胎儿发育、出生后发育产生不良影响。本文对镰刀菌毒素生殖、发育毒性研究及其进展进行综述。     

Ecophysiology of Fusarium temperatum isolated from maize in Argentina

The effect of water activity (a_w = 0.95, 0.98 and 0.995), temperature (15, 25 and 30°C), incubation time (7, 14, 21 and 28 days), and their interactions on growth and moniliformin (MON), beauvericin (BEA), fusaproliferin (FUS) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) production by two strains of Fusarium temperatum isolated from Argentinean maize were determined in vitro on sterile layers of maize grains. The results showed that there was a wide range of conditions for growth and mycotoxins production by F. temperatum. Both strains were found to grow faster with increasing a_w and at 30°C. In relation to mycotoxin production, the two strains produced more FUS than the other mycotoxins regardless of a_w or temperature evaluated (maximum = 50 000 μg g^?1). For FUS, MON and BEA, the maximum levels were observed at 0.98 a_w and 30°C (50 000, 5000 and 2000 μg g^?1 respectively). The lowest levels for these three mycotoxins were detected at 15°C and 0.95 a_w (1700 and 100 μg g^?1 for FUS and MON respectively), and at 0.98 a_w (400 μg g^?1 for BEA). The maximum levels of FB₁ were produced at 15°C and 0.98 a_w (1000 μg g^?1). At all a_w and temperatures combinations evaluated there was an increase in toxin concentrations with time incubation. The maximum levels were detected at 21 days. Statistical analyses of a_w, temperature, incubation time, and the two- and three-way interactions between them showed significant effects on mycotoxins production by F. temperatum. For its versatility on growth and mycotoxin production, F. temperatum represents a toxicological risk for maize in the field and also during grain storage.     

Naturally occurring phenols: a detoxification strategy for fumonisin B1

Phenolic compounds from plants offer a means for both the prevention and detoxification of mycotoxins that affect human health. This research investigates the control of fungal growth and toxin production by Fusarium verticillioides with plant phenolic compounds, namely chlorophorin, iroko and maakianin, benzoic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and vanillic acid. Inhibition by these compounds of fungal growth was determined by the agar overlay method and their effect on fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) production was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Chlorophorin was the most effective compound in inhibiting fungal growth, followed by iroko, maakianin, vanillic acid and caffeic acid. Chlorophorin also was the most effective compound in reducing toxin production (94% reduction), followed by caffeic acid, ferulic acid, vanillic acid and iroko, which reduced FB₁ levels by 90-91%. The widespread occurrence of fumonisins world-wide and the lack of adequate prevention of fumonisins require 'biologically safe' alternatives to prevent the transfer of fungi and their health hazardous toxins into our daily foods and environment.