Tribological behaviour of polymeric coatings. Part I. Aramid particle‐reinforced epoxy nanocomposite systems

An epoxy‐based nanocomposite containing a low concentration of nanometric TiO₂ (4 vol. %), graphite powder (7.21 vol. %), and 2–14 vol. % aramid particles was developed as a coating material. The mechanical and tribological performance of the composites was investigated. The epoxy filled only with TiO₂ possessed significantly improved impact strength and flexural properties, whereas the further incorporation of graphite and aramid particles had a deleterious effect on most of the mechanical properties, except the modulus. The tribological behaviour of the composites was tested in sliding and fretting modes. Under sliding conditions, the addition of nanometric TiO₂ alone significantly improved the wear resistance and decreased the coefficient of friction compared to the neat epoxy. The sliding wear and friction behaviour was further enhanced with the incorporation of graphite and aramid particles. Contrary to the sliding wear behaviour, the fretting wear and friction behaviour was worse for the epoxy filled only with TiO₂, but was significantly enhanced by the incorporation of graphite and aramid particles. The optimum aramid particle content for sliding and fretting wear of the epoxy‐based nanocomposite was determined as 10 vol. %.     

Tribological characteristics of hardened-and-tempered structural steels turned by inserts covered with multicomponent PVD coatings

The effect of coatings deposited on cutting tools using the PVD method on the tribological characteristics of the surface layer after the finish turning of 41Cr4 and 30CrMnSi steels is considered. The tribological characteristics of the turned surfaces change substantially. The best results are achieved when using the (AlTi)N coating, which ensures substantial decreases in the coefficient of friction (by 35–40%) and the temperature in the friction zone (by up to 30%). The dependences of the wear on the friction path are linear; the wear rate of the surfaces turned by the coated tools is significantly lower than that for the surfaces turned by the uncoated tools. Compared to the uncoated R25 hard alloy, the difference in the wear rates reaches 60% in favor of (AlTi)N and (TiAl)N coatings. A decrease in the thickness of the coating from 4 to 2 μm leads to a growth in the coefficient of friction and the temperature. An X-ray structural analysis of the surface layers of the turned specimens has revealed the presence of Fe-Al solid phases, which improve the wear resistance of the surface and the efficiency of coatings like (AlTi)N.     

Comprehensive tribological characterization of thin TiN-based coatings

Innumerable papers have been published so far describing tribological investigations of thin hard coatings based on TiN. Analysis of the presented results demonstrates a large dispersion of measured friction and wear numbers, whereas TiN-coated pieces and tools have proved their benefits in a broad area of application. Therefore an attempt was made to clarify the influences on friction and wear test results by varying the coating process, the tribological stresses due to sliding, fretting and rolling motion and by changing the surrounding medium. The results reveal that machining of substrate surfaces and type of tribological stresses due to sliding, fretting and rolling have an important influence. The formation of reaction layers is dominating the tribological behaviour in most cases.     

Fretting damage of TiN coated zircaloy-4 tube

Fretting has been reported and investigated for over 50 years. However, it is still one of the modern plagues for several industrial machineries. Especially, fretting of fuel rod cladding material, zircaloy-4 tube, in pressurized water reactor (PWR) must be reduced and avoided. Thin hard coatings are employed to improve the tribological properties such as friction and wear of conventional engineering materials. Among these coatings, physical vapor deposition (PVD) TiN coating is probably one of the most frequently and successfully used PVD coatings for the mitigation of fretting wear. Therefore, in this study a fretting wear experiment was performed using TiN coated zircaloy-4 tube as the fuel rod cladding material and uncoated zircaloy-4 tube as one of the grids. The fretting tester was designed and manufactured for this experiment. The number of cycles, slip amplitude and normal load were selected as main factors of fretting. The type of contact was cylinder-to-cylinder contact. The worn surface was observed by optical microscope, 3-D surface measuring instrument and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The results of this research showed that the wear volume of TiN coated zircaloy-4 tube decreased about 1.2–3 times more than uncoated tube and wear mechanisms were brittle fracture, fatigue fracture, adhesion, abrasion and oxidation.     

An Improved Tribological Polymer-Coating System for Metal Surfaces

Aromatic thermosetting polyester (ATSP)- and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-blended composites have been shown to exhibit improved tribological performance with low wear and low friction. In this article, pure ATSP films were coated on aluminum substrates and tested as a potential protective tribological coating. The tribological performance of this coating was tested against steel, using pure sliding sphere-on-disk experiments. A fluoroadditive powder (solid lubricant) was also added to further enhance the ATSP film wear and friction properties. For comparison, a commercially available PTFE-based coating was tested under the same conditions. Results show that the ATSP/fluoroadditive film has comparable coefficient of friction to the commercial coating, but significantly lower wear. Surface analysis techniques were employed to investigate the low-friction and low-wear mechanisms seen with the ATSP/fluoroadditive. Specifically TOF-SIMS depth-profiling showed that there is a high density of fluorine element within the wear track and penetrates well below the surface of the wear track.     

Dry-Sliding Tribological Properties of Bronze–Graphite Composites

Bronze-uncoated and nickel-coated graphite composites were fabricated by powder metallurgy route. The tribological behaviors of composites sliding against AISI52100 steel ball under dry sliding condition were studied using a ball-on-disk tribometer. The nickel-coated graphite composites showed much better tribological properties in comparison with bronze and uncoated graphite composite. The friction coefficient of nickel-coated graphite composites decreased with increasing nickel-coated graphite content. However, the specific wear rate increased with the increase in nickel-coated graphite. The composite containing 15?wt% nickel-coated graphite showed the best self-lubricating properties because the compacted and stable mechanical mixed layer was formed on the worn surfaces. The wear mechanism of bronze 663 is adhesive wear and abrasive wear. The uncoated nickel-coated graphite composite shows the adhesive wear and delamination characteristics. However, the wear mechanism of nickel-coated composites is mildly abrasive wear.     

Tribological behaviour and wear mechanism of MoS2–Cr coatings sliding against various counterbody

MoS₂–Cr coatings with different Cr contents have been deposited on high speed steel substrates by closed field unbalanced magnetron (CFUBM) sputtering. The tribological properties of the coatings have been tested against different counterbodies under dry conditions using an oscillating friction and wear tester. The coating microstructures, mechanical properties and wear resistance vary according to the Cr metal-content. MoS₂ tribological properties are improved with a Cr metal dopant in the MoS₂ matrix. The optimum Cr content varies with different counterbodies. Showing especially good tribological properties were MoS₂–Cr8% coating sliding against either AISI 1045 steel or AA 6061 aluminum alloy, and MoS₂–Cr5% coating sliding against bronze. Enhanced tribological behavior included low wear depth on coating, low wear width on counterbody, low friction coefficients and long durability.     

Unlubricated gross slip fretting wear of metallic plasma-sprayed coatings for Ti6Al4V surfaces

Plasma-sprayed Al–bronze or CuNiIn coatings are often applied to protect against fretting wear and extend the operational life of Ti-alloy compressor blades in turbine engines. In order to develop a fundamental understanding of how these coating systems perform under gross slip fretting conditions, bench level fretting wear tests were conducted at room temperature to simulate cold engine startup. Alternative coatings such as plasma-sprayed molybdenum and nickel were also evaluated because of their potential for reducing fretting wear under certain simulated engine conditions. The combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), surface profilometry, surface chemistry (EDS), and friction analysis were used to study coating performance and evaluate the interfacial wear mechanisms. In this study, it was determined that all coatings caused significant damage to the mating Ti6Al4V surfaces and that the wear mechanisms were all similar to those of the uncoated baseline case.     

Self-Lubricating Cold-Sprayed Coatings Utilizing Microscale Nickel-Encapsulated Hexagonal Boron Nitride

It is often beneficial to modify surfaces to gain desirable properties such as improved wear and friction resistance. Self-lubricating coatings can improve the performance of contacting surfaces and extend component lifetimes by reducing the coefficient of friction and/or improving resistance to specific wear modes. With these goals in mind, self-lubricating coatings of hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) particles in a deposited nickel matrix were investigated and optimized for friction and wear. These self-lubricating coatings were created via high-velocity particle consolidation or cold spray using micrometer-sized hBN powder encapsulated by nickel and nickel phosphorous alloys. Relatively thick nickel encapsulation via electrolesss Ni plating was required to aid in coating bonding/formation by “tricking” the hBN into acting as monolithic Ni during deposition. Once deposited on aluminum substrates, the coatings were analyzed and found to exhibit enhanced mechanical and tribological properties such as high bond strength and microhardness, a relatively low coefficient of friction, and improved reciprocating wear behavior relative to pure cold-sprayed Ni coatings. Furthermore, the encapsulation process was found to be both scalable and amenable to relatively small hBN particles.     

Tribological performance of a DLC coating in combination with water-based lubricants

The tribological behaviour in water-based environments has been studied for a tungsten carbide-doped DLC coating (WC/C) deposited by physical vapour deposition (PVD) on bearing steel. Several tribological test equipments have been used to characterise the wear rate, coefficient of friction and resistance to seizure of the coated system, in comparison with uncoated bearing steel surfaces. It was observed that the wear was decreased and the coefficient of friction reduced in pin-on-disc measurements for poor lubricants. Further, the resistance to seizure in the four-ball method was improved by a factor of approximately three. Results from Reichert measurements showed a decreased wear rate and also a very pronounced running-in behaviour of the coating for some water-based lubricants. It has been shown that the performance of tribological systems with water-based lubricants can be significantly improved with this type of DLC coating.     

Sliding wear behaviour of PEEK‐PTFE blends

The role of PTFE in tailoring the tribological performance of PEEK is not clear from the literature, and conflicting evidence is reported about its ability to improve friction, wear, or both. Moreover, little has been reported on the optimum composition of such blends for the best possible combination of mechanical and tribological properties. Hence, in this work various blends of PEEK with PTFE have been injection moulded and characterised for their mechanical properties. Their friction and wear behaviour was evaluated using a pin‐on‐disc machine. It was observed that the inclusion of PTFE powder not only removed scuffing problems associated with the friction behaviour of PEEK, but also improved both friction and wear characteristics. A blend with 7.5 wt. % PTFE showed the best wear behaviour, while a blend with 30 wt.% PTFE exhibited the best friction performance. A concentration of 7.5 wt. % PTFE was thought to be the optimum amount for the best possible combination of mechanical and tribological properties.     

Friction and wear characteristics of ion-beam modified graphite coatings

Solid lubricated surfaces are now widely used in the tool industry, and the new concept of ‘soft tools’ recently introduced has emphasized low-friction surfaces. The present paper deals with a novel ‘burnishing’ process based on ionic bombardment of powder graphite coating/substrate systems. This process may influence both the coating and the coating/substrate interface, and it is effective for improving lubrication even at low doses of bombarding ions. The present study will discuss the friction and wear properties of graphite-powder coatings on a silicon wafer bombarded with 200 keV ion beams of argon, nitrogen and hydrogen ions, the last two as molecular ions. The coefficients of friction and wear rates of the coatings were found to be strongly dependent on the ion-bombarding species and ion dose. The argon ion bombardment increased the coefficient of friction and wear rate of the powder coating. However, at the interface of the silicon substrate, the ion-induced burnishing improved the tribological behaviour of the silicon material. Bombardment with nitrogen and hydrogen ions showed a marked improvement in the tribological properties of the graphite powder coating. Thus a reduction in wear rate by three orders of magnitude was observed in the case of nitrogen, and for both ions it was noted that ion-beam burnished graphite was lubricating in a dry environment, which has not been reported previously. The perspectives of ion bombardment as a burnishing process will be discussed and the observed effects will be qualitatively explained in the context of the theory for ionic penetration into solids.     

An investigation of the fretting behaviour of low friction coatings on steel

Three different low friction coatings on steel (electrolytically deposited cadmium, PTFE solid lubricant in epoxy resin and PTFE solid lubricant in polyimide resin) were studied in order to relate their fretting behaviour with mechanical properties. Particular importance was given to adhesion which was measured using a scratch test. Fretting tests were carried out on the steel substrate and on the coatings under the same conditions. The major parameters of the tribological system were identified and then quantified. The values of the parameters obtained for each coating were compared with the corresponding values for uncoated steel. The mechanical characteristics of the coatings and their fretting parameters were plotted using a polar diagram in order to give an overview of the fretting behaviour of each coating. Differences were noted and the corresponding parameters were identified. The influence of the adherence of the coating and of the fretting test load on the lifetime of the coating was determined.     

Third body effects on friction and wear during fretting of steel contacts

Fretting wear proceeds through particle detachment from the contacting surfaces which, while trapped in the contact zone, can affect the frictional and wear response. Ball-on-flat fretting experiments were carried out between steel specimens under gross slip regime. A transition in the coefficient of friction was linked to a critical contact pressure. The microstructure and chemical composition of the third body evolve with the applied pressure. The evolution of the friction coefficient is strongly dependent on the third body properties. The wear is controlled by the applied load and thus the real contact area within the wear track.     

Wear and Friction Characteristics of Magnetorheological Fluid under Magnetic Field Activation

In this article, wear and friction characteristics of a magnetorheological (MR) fluid were studied under different magnetic fields. Using a pin-on-disc tribometer, the wear loss and friction coefficient were obtained with and without a magnetic field. The friction and wear of three typical materials under magnetic field were investigated at various normal loads and rotating speeds. After the wear tests, the worn surfaces of specimens were observed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) in order to investigate the wear mechanisms, and the contacting surfaces were analyzed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to investigate the variation of elemental composition on the worn surface. Test results showed that the MR fluid exhibits better tribological characteristics under a magnetic field compared to the case without a magnetic field. The general morphology of the MR particles and wear debris was observed to assist with the analysis of friction and wear. The SEM micrographs and EDS spectra of the worn surfaces showed that the predominant wear mechanism in the case of the steel and brass specimens was abrasive wear by asperities and MR particles on the worn surfaces, whereas a mixed wear mechanism that included adhesive wear and abrasive wear was observed in the case of the aluminum specimen.     

Wear properties of DLC-coated steel rollers running with highly contaminated lubrication

The presence of hard contaminants in lubrication can lead to the premature failure of rolling bearings. To reduce the negative effect of such contaminants, hard carbon-based coatings (diamond-like carbon; DLC) can be applied to the surfaces of steel bearings. DLC coatings generate a low friction and a high sliding wear resistance to enhance the tribological properties and improve the durability of running components. This work explores the merits of DLC coatings for use in very demanding applications, such as in highly contaminated environments. The wear properties of DLC-coated bearing rollers were evaluated by comparing them with uncoated rollers. The degree of wear found on the coated rollers was serious, especially under relatively high contaminant concentrations. The three-body abrasive wear produced a relatively coarse scoring of the coating surface, which caused the corresponding disc to suffer more damage than the disc running against an uncoated roller under the same operating conditions. The results indicate that supposedly wear-protective coatings cause even more damage to running surfaces once they have been broken up by hard contaminants, and highlight the importance of keeping the bearing coating intact. In practise, it is important to eliminate contaminants from the lubricant of rolling bearings, in particular for bearings with a DLC anti-wear coating.     

粘结固体润滑膜的摩擦学特性研究

采用2种不同的固体润滑粉末(石墨和二硫化钼)分别与溶剂、粘结树脂组合制得粘结固体润滑剂,涂敷于钢板表面成膜,然后对得到的粘结固体润滑膜的润滑性能、物理化学性能和耐磨性能进行了测试。结果表明:粘结固体润滑剂中的固体粉末含量越多、颗粒越细,润滑膜的润滑性能越好,但固体粉末含量的增加影响了润滑膜的干燥时间,附着力、柔韧性和耐冲击性能也变差;只有当润滑剂中加入了适量固体粉末后,得到的润滑膜的减磨效果最佳。     

Effect of surface chemistry on the tribological performance of a MEMS electrostatic lateral output motor

The effect of surface chemistry on the tribological performance and reliability of a MEMS lateral output motor is reported. Relative humidity (RH) and octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) self-assembled monolayer (SAM) coatings were used to change surface chemistry. Electrical and tribological performance of uncoated and OTS-coated motors were found to be dependent on RH. For uncoated motors, excessive wear of sliding contacts and welding (permanent adhesion) of static contacts were observed at 0.1% RH. Degradation of electrostatic force and high static friction (stiction) forces limited dynamic performance and reliability and caused device sticking at and above 70% RH. Around 50% RH, uncoated motors exhibited negligible wear, low adhesion, and a wear life at least three orders of magnitude longer than in the dry environment (experiments were stopped without failure after about one billion cycles). Water vapor behaved as a gas phase replenishable lubricant by providing a protective adsorbed film. The OTS coating broadened the operating envelope to 30–50% RH and reduced stiction, which allowed better dynamic performance at high RH. The OTS coating improved durability at 0.1% RH, but it was still poor. At high RH, stiction problems reoccurred when the OTS coating was worn away. By controlling and balancing surface chemistry (adsorbed water and OTS), excellent performance, low friction and wear, and excellent durability were attained with the lateral output motor.     

粉末涂料固体润滑膜滚动/滑动复合干摩擦磨损特性研究

在M-2000磨损试验机上考察了经过一次处理和经两次处理的40Cr钢环表面喷涂3种粉末涂料型固体润滑膜(P型、H型、E型)试样,在线载荷为104N/m、相对滑动速度为0.042 m/s、干摩擦滚动/滑动复合磨损条件下的摩擦磨损性能,通过扫描电子显微镜(SEM)对试样磨损表面以及磨屑进行了显微观察。结果表明:底材经过一次处理(化学底膜处理)的复合固体润滑膜试样,P型和E型在磨损后期的摩擦因数分别稳定在0.38和0.32,而H型在0.40左右跳动;P型和H型的涂层磨损脱落期为60 m in左右,E型为120 m in左右;质量磨损从小到大顺序为P型相似文献   

Fe-Cr-Ni耐磨涂层的摩擦性能及作用机理

研究了φ2mm粉芯丝材电弧喷涂Fe-Cr-Ni耐磨涂层的摩擦性能,分析了其结构特征和摩擦作用机理。结果表明:Fe-Cr-Ni耐磨涂层具有优良的抗磨减摩性能,对摩试环磨损表面形成转移膜。其磨损机制主要是磨料磨损和分层磨损。