A longitudinal analysis of logical reasoning relationships: Conservation and transitive inference.

102 children originally assessed in 1973 were retested 1 yr later on a series of conservation and transitive inference tasks (length and weight content areas). An additional sample of matched cohort/grade Ss (1st- and 4th-grade levels) were assessed in the 2nd yr only to permit evaluation of repeated measurement biases for the longitudinal sample. Results indicate that there were no effects of presentation order, selective survival, repeated measurement, sex, or content area; these variables did not interact with each other. Analyses of the longitudinal Ss' conservation task performances over the annual interval indicated significant grade-level distinctions, Yr 1 vs Yr 2 differences, and type of conservation distinctions (identity vs equivalence). Identity conservation scores were consistently superior to equivalence conservation scores, a superiority most notable for the youngest Ss. Transitive inference tasks were significantly less difficult than equivalence conservation tasks. Most importantly, evidence for a developmental mastery sequence (transitivity-conservation) was demonstrated. Identity-equivalence conservation task distinctions were most apparent for the without verbal justification response criterion. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental capacity and cognitive functioning: Developmental and social class differences.

Hypothesized that social class performance differences of same-age children would be negligible on pure mental (M) capacity measures but would be greater on tasks that confound other variables with M capacity. This hypothesis is anchored in a neo-Piagetian theory of cognitive development (J. Pascual-Leone; see record 1971-07908-001), which gives a central role to an attentional mechanism of limited M capacity that grows monotonically with age. 268 Israeli 8-, 10-, and 12-yr-olds of low or high SES completed 10 cognitive developmental tasks that measured pure M capacity, short-term memory, verbal IQ, and spatial-analytic ability. Results show that M capacity developed similarly in same-age Ss, regardless of SES. Significant differences among the investigated populations were found only in performing tasks that confounded factors of learning and style. Results support the notion that a cognitive development process exists that is universal in stage sequences and in the rate and timing of development. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's self-image disparity: Effects of age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender.

Assessed developmental and experiential determinants of self-image disparity in 80 2nd and 5th graders. There were 8 groups formed on the basis of socioeconomic status (SES), ethnicity, and gender within each grade. Consistent with predictions generated by developmental theory, self-image disparity was found to be positively related to CA. Although the results were not uniform across the 3 self-image instruments employed, the larger disparity in older Ss appeared to be a function of both decreased self-evaluations and increased ideal self-images. Gender, SES, and ethnic group membership—characteristics thought to subsume pervasive experiential differences—were also found to affect self-image. Males had larger self-image disparities than females, Whites had larger disparities and higher ideal self images than Blacks, and SES affected self-image differentially for the 2nd and 5th graders. Findings indicate that an understanding of children's self-images requires a consideration of both developmental and experiential factors. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of socioeconomic status on children's classification and free recall.

29 kindergarten and 29 1st-grade children were divided into 3 SES levels based on their parents' education level (college, high school, or less than high school) and given 2 sort/recall tasks on sets of pictures that could be organized on the basis of familiar taxonomic or complementary relations. On 1 task, Ss sorted pictures into identical groupings on 2 consecutive trials prior to recall; on the other task, Ss sorted the pictures only once. It was found that Ss from college-educated families were more apt to sort items on the basis of taxonomic relations than Ss from high-school-educated and less-than-high-school-educated families. However, there were no significant differences in levels of recall or clustering. Results indicate that young children from low-SES homes will demonstrate high levels of memory performance when tasks are constructed so that they are familiar with the relations among the to-be-remembered items. The appropriateness of distinguishing children's cognition in terms of A. R. Jensen's (see record 1969-09740-001) Level I vs Level II dichotomy is discussed in light of recent research examining the role of knowledge base on children's memory functioning. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive certainty in children: Effects of concept, developmental level, and method of assessment.

Examined the certainty with which children make their judgments on concrete-operational tasks. Ss were 60 2nd graders and 36 5th graders; the tasks involved various forms of conservation and transitivity. Three methods of assessing certainty were included: a rating scale, a betting game, and a feedback phase in which the child responded to a disconfirmation of his answer. Ss who had given operational answers expressed strong certainty in their judgments on both the rating and betting measures. The certainty expressed during the feedback phase, as measured by challenges to the disconfirmation, was considerably less. Operational answers were accompanied by greater certainty than were nonoperational answers. Developmental changes in certainty among operational Ss were infrequent, as were interconcept differences in certainty. There was evidence, however, that conservation of number was the concept held with greatest certainty. Results are discussed in terms of J. Piaget's (1971) claim that concepts of conservation and transitivity are experienced as logically necessary truths. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Symbolic play and its cognitive significance.

Explored the relationship between symbolic play training and conservation attainment. Ss were 30 middle-class nonconserving children, with a median age of 4.3 yrs. After extensive pretests on conservation of quantity, 15 nonconservers were assigned to the experimental condition, consisting of 3 sessions of symbolic play on consecutive days, and 15 Ss were assigned to the control condition, consisting of 3 daily play sessions with puzzles, mosaics, and drawing tasks. Subsequent to the play sessions, Ss were given conservation of quantity posttests. Results show that 13 of the experimental Ss manifested some change in solving conservation problems, with 4 Ss reaching the level of full conservation attainment. Only a single S from the control group showed a change toward conservation on the posttests. Data are interpreted as supporting a cognitive function of symbolic play. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of interpersonal understanding: A longitudinal and comparative study of normal and disturbed youths.

Using an interview procedure, levels of interpersonal understanding were assessed for 17 behaviorally and emotionally disturbed boys and were compared longitudinally, across 3 assessments at 2- and 4-yr intervals, with those of 17 better-adjusted male peers matched for age, race, SES, and WISC-R IQ. Ss were in Grades 1–6 at Time 1, 3–8 at Time 2, and 7–22 at Time 3. Results suggest that the sequence of progression through levels of interpersonal understanding was the same for both disturbed and normal samples but that the developmental trend of trouble Ss lagged behind that of the higher-functioning group. However, longitudinal follow-up results suggest that the developmental lag of the disturbed Ss was diminishing with time. An exploratory study conducted during Time 3 suggested that relatively low levels of interpersonal understanding were related to the self-reported use of physical and avoidant strategies to resolve conflicts. Results are considered in the context of theoretical relations between thought and action. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of self-recognition in the infant.

A hypothesized 5-stage developmental sequence of self-recognition behaviors was tested in 48 infants between 6 and 24 mo of age, and the self-recognition sequence was compared to the development of object permanence. The predicted self-recognition sequence consisted of 5 tasks that Ss performed in front of the mirror, with later-developing tasks requiring the coordination of a larger number of behaviors relating to S's mirror image than earlier-developing tasks. The development of object permanence was assessed with the Uzgiris-Hunt scale, and the object-permanence items were assigned to stages that structurally paralleled the 5 stages of self-recognition. The self-recognition tasks formed an almost perfect Guttman scale, with 46 out of 48 Ss fitting the predicted developmental sequence precisely. This finding thus resolves most of the disagreements in previous research on the development of self-recognition: Previous studies examined different behaviors, which develop at distinct stages in the sequence. Object permanence and self-recognition showed a strong correlation, but there was no consistent relationship between the 2 skills across age groups. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Demographic parameters of self-disclosure to psychotherapists and others.

Administered a 42-item self-disclosure scale to 223 Ss selected at public locations. On the basis of demographic data, 180 Ss were assigned to gender, race, and SES subgroups for response analysis. Data partially support the hypothesis that SES relates to self-disclosure patterns. Analysis showed, however, that SES was not a significant determinant of reported willingness to self-disclose except in interaction with gender. Males reported greater willingness than females to discuss with clergy 1 or more of the topics presented, and similar directional differences were observed on 5 of the 6 topics (sex, emotion, family, relationship, work, and morality). Whites reported significantly greater willingness than Blacks to disclose to spouse and psychiatrist, but no differences were observed for the listener categories of close friend, clergyman, and family doctor. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sociocultural change and adolescents' perceptions of parent behavior.

Administered the Children's Report of Parent Behavior Inventory (CRPBI) and an SES scale to 1,949 13–18 yr olds from 2 cities in India and to 364 age-matched Ss from 1 city in Canada. Indian Ss were designated as traditional or transitional according to the values they were taught (traditional Indian vs modern Western); Canadian Ss were designated as modern. Factor analyses of CRPBI scales revealed 3 replicable factors: Acceptance, Firm Control (FC), and Psychological Control (PC). ANOVAs were used to test the effects of culture, sex, age, and SES on the 3 CRPBI factors. Younger Ss consistently reported more PC and FC than did older ones. Modern Ss reported the most FC, and traditional Ss reported the most PC. Even though higher SES correlated with lower PC and FC, statistical SES control did not attenuate the strong cultural differences for PC. Results suggest considerable congruence between demands and parental socialization practices. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in selective attention among prereaders: A key to mirror-image confusions.

Exp I investigated the position that mirror-image confusions reflect an inability to attend to low-salient cues. 84 3–5 yr olds were given 3 problems: mirror-image matching, shape-detail matching, and consistent left–right ordering on a picture-naming task. With nonlearners, performance was reassessed following explicit instructions. This rendered Ss divisible into levels: spontaneous, instructed learners, and nonlearners. As predicted, most 3-yr-olds fell into identical categories across all low-salient problems, either instructed learners or nonlearners. The 4–5 yr olds were spontaneous or instructed learners but did not exhibit concordance across all problems. It is suggested that for these Ss, level differences reflected differences between nonreaders already attending to reading cues and those not yet attending. Exp II, with the 4–5 yr olds from Exp I, identified the nonreaders, who were given a letter-series and letter-writing task. Significant-levels agreement occurred among the prereading tasks involving attention to individual shape details. The ordering problem showed level concordance only with tasks involving left–right scanning. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dogmatisme paternel, niveau socio-économique et performance cognitive de pré-adolescent(e)s.

Studied the association among paternal dogmatism, socioeconomic status (SES), and cognitive development using Piagetian tasks. Human subjects: 98 male and female French-Canadian schoolage children and adolescents (aged 144–171 mo) (1st class of students in the secondary school). 98 male French-Canadian adults (aged 32–62 yrs). All Ss were from 2-parent families and consisted of 50 father–daughter and 48 father–son dyads. Paternal dogmatism was measured using the French-Canadian version of the Rokeach Scale by M. Rokeach (1960). Cognitive levels were evaluated using Piaget and Inhelder"s Permutations Test (1951). Ss" SES was measured using B. R. Blishen and H. A. McRobert"s Socioeconomic Index (1976). The results of the cognitive performance tests were analyzed statistically according to age, sex, dogmatism, and SES, using an analysis of variance (ANOVA). (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenia and the scanning cognitive control: A reevaluation.

In recent studies it has been inferred from performance on perceptual tasks, that paranoid schizophrenics showed extensive scanning and nonparanoid schizophrenics showed minimal scanning. Eye movements during free-search and size-judgment tasks were recorded for 14 paranoid and 14 nonparanoid schizophrenics, 14 psychotic depressives, and 14 control Ss. Medicated Ss showed lower eyemovement rate and fixation rate than nonmedicated Ss and controls, but there were no significant differences due to schizophrenia. There was a significant interaction between patient type and medication for size-judgment means, but all such differences were reduced to nonsignificance by training. Even after training, Ss showed greater variability in size judgments than controls. Results failed to support the notion of extensive or minimal scanning behavior of schizophrenics. Errors by the psychotic patients in making size judgments were not correlated with scanning behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A developmental study of balance theory in four cultural groups.

Canadian White and native Indian Ss and New Zealand White and Maori Ss from 5 age groups ranging from 5 to 14 yrs, provided missing sentiment relations for 8 hypothetical interpersonal triads. Ss' explanations for their responses were also systematically obtained. The 2 White groups and Maori Ss showed a steady increase in balanced responses and in balance-type explanations with increasing age, reaching high levels in the older groups. Balanced responses were less frequent among Indian Ss, and there was no clear developmental trend in tendency towards balance. These latter findings may be partly attributable to small Indian samples and a truncated age range. With the exception of the Indians, differences among cultural groups were small. Coherent principles of social reasoning other than balance were rare and did not differentiate among cultural groups. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Area and volume conservation among the elderly: Assessment and training.

Conducted 2 studies to examine whether the elderly maintain the competence to adequately solve problems of logical thinking. In the 1st study the performance of 60 noninstitutionalized middle-class elderly females was assessed on area and volume conservation tasks. On overall performance only 33.3% of the Ss were classified as conservers. In the 2nd study a training paradigm was used to determine whether simple verbal feedback activated the strategies required for adequate performance on conservation tasks. 22 Ss who failed at least 2 conservation tasks in the assessment study were administered a 20-trial training procedure. Half of these Ss received simple verbal feedback following each response, while half received no feedback. Results on an immediate posttest indicated that the feedback group performed significantly better than the control group on the near transfer posttest task and on the majority of far transfer tasks. The results are discussed in terms of a distinction between competence and performance. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing and the development of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values.

109 3–10 yr old Ss completed an individualized regression assessment of social values, a central-incidental memory measure, and a free-recall word list task in a study that assessed the possibility that the developmental difference in social values is associated with the development of information-processing capabilities. Findings demonstrate developmental differences in social values and suggest a possible partial explanation for the differences. The modal social value among 3–5 yr olds was individualism, while among 6–7 yr olds and 8–20 yr olds the modal social value was superiority. The oldest Ss expressed a social value involving equality more frequently than did younger Ss. It is suggested that older children, compared to younger children, more often consider the relative nature of their outcomes and more often engage in social comparison. Performance on the memory tasks was consistently associated with age: Ss who expressed an individualism social value generally performed more poorly on the memory measures than did Ss who expressed any other social value. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental changes in assessing recall and recognition memory capacity.

32 1st graders, 32 5th graders, and 32 college students were asked to predict how many orally presented nouns they would later be able to (a) recall or (b) recognize. Based on a "task familiarity" argument, it was anticipated that quite different developmental patterns would be obtained on the 2 tasks. As expected, large developmental differences in prediction accuracy emerged on the recall task but not on the recognition task. Following actual task experience and feedback concerning performance, Ss at all ages made more accurate predictions about a hypothetical 2nd list even though the original developmental patterns still remained. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processes in the development of children's enjoyment and comprehension of joking riddles.

Joking riddles drawn primarily from children's joke books were administered to 33 boys of average intelligence (as measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) from the 1st, 3rd, and 5th grades of a large middle-class public school. Four distinctive types of joking riddle structure were represented: idiosyncratic preriddles, homonymic riddles, improbable-relationship riddles, and riddle parodies. Ss were also administered 3 Piagetian conservation tasks (liquid, weight, and area). Riddle comprehension generally increased from 1st to 5th grades. Highly significant enjoyment effects for riddle structure support the developmental differentiation of logical incongruity from illogical incongruity humor. Cognitive maturity as assessed by Piagetian tasks generally increased with grade. The relation of cognitive maturity to Ss' enjoyment and comprehension of logical riddles was not clearly demonstrated, although effects for 1st-grade conservers of liquid were provocative. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reasoning about certainty and uncertainty in concrete, causal, and propositional contexts.

Examined children's comprehension of certainty and uncertainty within the context of concrete and propositional reasoning tasks. 69 1st, 3rd, and 5th graders were given G. Pieraut-LeBonniec's (1980) box task and a multisufficient causality task to assess reasoning about certainty and uncertainty in concrete contexts. Ss were also given conditional syllogisms to assess this ability in a propositional context. Half of the Ss at each grade were given contramanded syllogism task statements intended to block erroneous conversational inferences made about these conditional statements. Results indicate that there were no developmental differences in reasoning about concrete certainty, but significant improvement occurred with age in reasoning about concrete uncertainty. On syllogisms, only the 5th graders benefited from contramanding and thus demonstrated an understanding of propositional uncertainty. Correlational and error analyses showed that the discrimination between certainty and uncertainty was mastered in concrete contexts prior to the time when this discrimination occurred in propositional contexts. It is concluded that reasoning about concrete certainty and uncertainty requires a different competence than that required for reasoning about propositional certainty and uncertainty. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Black children's use of nonstandard grammar: Two years later.

A Berko-type task requiring Ss to derive the present, plural, possessive, and time extension forms of nonsense syllables was administered to 115 Black and White 2nd graders and readministered to a subsample of these same children upon their reaching the 4th grade. At both 2nd- and 4th-grade levels, White Ss supplied significantly more standard English responses and Black Ss significantly more hypothesized nonstandard English responses to each of the 4 tasks. Additionally, Ss of both races showed significant increases in standard English usage and significant decreases in nonstandard English usage over the 2-yr period. The possibility that grammatical differences between Black Ss and White Ss might disappear given more time is discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)