Toward a definition of self-care children: A commentary on Steinberg (1986).

This comment responds to an article by Steinberg (1986) in which he stressed the desirability of investigating a wide variety of after-school experiences when examining consequences for latchkey (self-care) children. In presenting his results, he inadvertently confounded latchkey children with adolescents who spent time at a friend's house or who "hang out" with friends without adult supervision. Steinberg reported that these adolescents showed greater susceptibility to peer pressure to engage in antisocial activities. We point out that these adolescents do not fit the usual conceptualization of latchkey children and that Steinberg's study may lend support to practitioners and policy makers who assume negative latchkey consequences in the absence of research evidence. To avoid future confusion we indicate the need for a definition of latchkey children and offer a tentative definition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Simple solutions to a complex problem: A response to Rodman, Pratto, and Nelson (1988).

Rodman, Pratto, & Nelson (1988) take issue with the classification of youngsters who are unsupervised after school, but not in their own home, as "latchkey" or "self-care" children in studies that examine the effects of after-school care experiences on children's behavior and development. They also take issue with including young adolescents, 14-15 years, in such studies. On the basis of these concerns, they dismiss as spurious and misleading findings from a previous study (Steinberg, 1986), which suggested that latchkey youngsters who spend after-school hours away from home may be at greater risk for misbehavior than latchkey youngsters who are in their own homes. They then propose that researchers use the term self-care to refer only to elementary-school youngsters who are home alone (or with a younger sibling) after school. Arguments against these proposals are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Boys who fight at home and school: Family conditions influencing cross-setting consistency.

Compared boys reported to fight at home or at school, and those reported to fight in both settings in terms of their behavior and family backgrounds to test the hypothesis that Ss identified as fighters in both home and school settings would show higher rates of coercive and disobedient behavior in the home than Ss identified as nonfighters or fighters in a single setting. Ss were 74 4th-grade, 78 7th-grade, and 58 10th-grade males, and 17.6% of Ss were classified as fighters in the home by their mothers. Results support the hypothesis: Ss reported to fight by both mothers and teachers scored substantially higher than other Ss on measures of antisocial behavior. Their parents showed poorer monitoring and disciplining practices than parents of the other Ss, and their families were also characterized by more marital conflict, poor problem-solving skills, and parental rejection. Ss who fought only at home had mothers who were less coercive than Ss who fought only at school, as detected by home observations. Findings are discussed in terms of the prevention and treatment of physical violence by boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of prior group memberships on subsequent reconnaissance activities.

1,134 college freshmen completed an orientation questionnaire assessing their experiences in high school groups and expectations about college groups. 220 Ss were also interviewed later about their behavior toward campus groups at an activities fair. Ss whose experiences in high school groups were more positive tried harder to identify potentially desirable college groups, primarily because they believed that belonging to such groups would be useful for achieving personal goals. Ss with prior experience in relevant high school groups used that experience to evaluate similar college groups and thus made more realistic (less optimistic) evaluations of those groups than did Ss without prior experience. Among Ss who wanted to join a college group, those who had belonged to a relevant high school group behaved differently at the activities fair than did those who had not. Ss with prior experience were more likely to approach their chosen group at the activities fair and to avoid other groups there of a similar sort. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Susceptibility to peer influence: Using a performance-based measure to identify adolescent males at heightened risk for deviant peer socialization.

A substantial amount of research has suggested that adolescents' attitudes and behaviors are influenced by peers; however, little is known regarding adolescents' individual variability, or susceptibility, to peer influence. In this study, a performance-based index from an experimental paradigm was used to directly measure adolescents' susceptibility to peers. A total of 36 adolescent boys participated in a “chat room” experiment in which they ostensibly were exposed to deviant or risky social norms communicated either by high-peer-status (i.e., popular, well-liked) or low-peer-status (i.e., unpopular, disliked) grade mates who actually were electronic confederates. Changes in adolescents' responses before and after exposure to peer norms were used as a measure of peer influence susceptibility. These same adolescents completed a questionnaire assessment at the study outset and again 18 months later to assess their actual engagement in deviant behavior and their perceptions of their best friend's engagement in deviant behavior. Only among adolescents with high levels of susceptibility to high-status peers was a significant longitudinal association revealed between their best friend's baseline deviant behavior and adolescents' own deviant behavior 18 months later. Findings support the predictive validity of a performance-based susceptibility measure and suggest that adolescents' peer influence susceptibility may generalize across peer contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of schemes for recognizing additive and alternative effects in a "natural experiment" context.

20 Ss at each of 4 age levels (4th, 6th, and 8th grade and college) were presented a "natural experiment" problem situation in which they were asked to interpret the more complex situations in which (a) either of 2 alternative variables is sufficient to produce an outcome, or (b) 2 variables are additive in their effect on an outcome. Not until adolescence could Ss isolate alternative or additive causes in a multivariable situation, though it is speculated they may comprehend the concept of alternative causes well before this age. Only 65% of college Ss exhibited correct reasoning in one or both situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An ecological analysis of peer influence on adolescent grade point average and drug use.

The interactive effects of peer behavior and adolescents' perceptions of authoritative parenting on GPA and drug use were examined. Two samples of 500 9th–11th graders participated in a 1-yr longitudinal study, and they and their friends provided reports of respective school grades and substance use. Changes in GPA and drug use are predicted by friend's grades and drug use. However, this effect is moderated by the adolescent's report of authoritative parenting. The positive impact of having a high-achieving friend is stronger among adolescents whose parents are relatively more authoritative. The deleterious impact of having a drug-using friend is stronger among adolescents whose parents are relatively less authoritative. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparisons of second-generation holocaust survivors, immigrants, and nonimmigrants on measures of mental health.

Investigated whether a "children-of-Holocaust-survivors syndrome" could more parsimoniously be explained as an "immigration effect," in a comparative study on 25 children of Holocaust survivors, 25 children of immigrants, and 25 children of American-born parents (mean age of all Ss 26.96 yrs). Ss were matched on age and educational level and were assessed with 4 measures of mental health: an alienation scale, an anomie scale, a hostility-guilt inventory, and a brief mental health index. Data indicate no significant differences between children of holocaust survivors and the children of other immigrants. These data suggest an immigration effect that is common to the children of immigrants and not limited to the children of Holocaust survivors, rather than a survivors syndrome. The children of American-born parents showed greater alienation, less religiosity, and a tendency toward feelings of less guilt than the other 2 groups. Results underscore the need to control immigrant status in multiple samples and studies before definitive conclusions can be drawn in this area. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affecting the salience of the social responsibility norm: effects of past help on the response to dependency relationships.

A series of experiments by the authors assumes that many people in our society are motivated to aid others who are dependent upon them because such help is prescribed by a "social responsibility norm." The present study also assumes that prior help can increase the salience of this norm. In a 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design using 80 Ss (college women), ? of the Ss were individually helped by a peer (E's confederate) on a preliminary task, while the others were not aided. After this, the Ss worked on another task under the supposed supervision of yet another peer, with ? of the Ss being told the supervisor was highly dependent upon their work and the others told she was less dependent upon them. The 1st peer would supposedly learn of their work in ? of the cases but not in the other ?. The previously helped Ss tended to exert the greatest effort in behalf of their dependent peer. A self-report scale assessing social responsibility tendencies was significantly correlated with the effort measure in the Prior Help-High Dependency condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Loneliness among children and young adolescents.

Investigated differences in loneliness involving parents and peers and the relations between loneliness, choices of a "first comfort figure" (FCF), and social sensitivity as perceived by peers. 60 female and 52 male 5th graders, 97 female and 45 male 7th graders, and 66 female and 73 male 9th graders were given a loneliness scale and a sociometric measure of perceived social sensitivity. Results indicate that age differences in parent-related loneliness were marginally significant. Seventh graders seemed to have fewer loneliness experiences in their relationships with parents than 5th and 9th graders. Boys more frequently reported those feelings than girls. Ss who indicated both parents as their FCFs had the lowest scores for parent-related loneliness, whereas those who indicated friends as their FCFs had the highest scores for parent-related loneliness. With respect to peer-related loneliness, no age or sex differences were found. However, girls who chose both parents as their FCFs were more lonely than boys who did the same, and boys who chose their fathers as their FCFs mentioned more peer-related loneliness feelings than the girls who made this choice. Ss perceived as socially sensitive by their classmates less frequently mentioned peer-related loneliness feelings. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anti-Semitism, distraction and physical aggression.

Examined the aggressive responses of persons who varied in level of anti-Semitism and who were either distracted or not distracted from an insulter. 34 male undergraduates, chosen as Ss through a questionnaire which included the 10-item Anti-Semitism Scale and the 28-item California F Scale, participated in a paired associate learning task in which their performance was demeaned by a tape recorded series of disparaging remarks presumably given by their peer. Following this, critical Ss either relaxed under conditions where voice and movement cues from their insulter were heard, or Ss observed a film designed to distract them from their insulter. The critical Ss were then requested to teach their peer a paired associate list under conditions in which they administered shock to their partner. Results of the 3 * 2 * 3 repeated measures analysis of variance with 3 levels of anti-Semitism, 2 distraction conditions, and 3 trials indicate that distraction reduced the intensity of shock delivered to the peer. Ss tended to rate themselves as less annoyed and less anxious under distraction conditions. Ss varying in anti-Semitism did not differ in the amount of shock delivered to their partner. The situational demands may have been powerful enough to override the effects of personality differences. 2 interpretations are offered for the finding that the highly prejudiced Ss perceived the shock delivered to their peer as more painful than the less prejudiced Ss: (a) the possibility that this difference reflected the highly prejudiced Ss' lower guilt level for aggressing; and (b) the possibility that the highly prejudiced Ss used different mechanisms to reduce the discomfort engendered by harming another person than those used by their less prejudiced peers. (French summary) (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical supervision in Canadian academic and service settings: The importance of education, training, and workplace support for supervisor development.

A national sample of Canadian psychologists who provide clinical supervision in academic or service settings (n?=?156) was surveyed regarding their background preparation for clinical supervision, satisfaction with current supervisory load, and workplace support for supervisory activities and development. With respect to supervisor training and development, the authors found that (1) almost two-thirds of the Ss received no formal training in supervision, (2) most initially felt inadequately prepared to supervise trainees, (3) subsequent self-study of supervision was perceived as helpful, and (4) self-study was associated with administrative encouragement for professional development. Exploration of supervisory load and workplace support showed that (1) a large majority of Ss were satisfied with their load, (2) satisfaction did not differ across academic and service settings, and (3) supervisors in service settings were more satisfied with opportunities for peer support around supervision. Ss called for more training in supervision and increased amounts of time on the job to devote to supervision. The need for increased training in supervision at all levels, continuing professional education, and workplace enhancements to facilitate supervision are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent–parent separation.

Assessed the effect of adolescent–parent separation on the relationships between parents and their sons entering college. Two groups of parents and adolescent sons were tested. One group consisted of 104 adolescents who were to leave home to board at college. The 2nd group of 138 adolescents remained at home and commuted to college. Each group was tested first while the boys were still in high school and again after they began college. Those Ss who boarded at college exhibited increased affection, communication, satisfaction, and independence in relation to their parents. This indicated that the initial separation of leaving for college facilitates a boy's growth toward the developmental goal of becoming functionally independent of his parents while retaining strong emotional ties to them. Increases were also found in mothers' affection and some fathers' dependence. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accentuating the positive: Eliciting generalized compliance from children through activity-oriented requests.

Investigated the effectiveness of activity-oriented requests as a technique for enhancing children's generalized subsequent compliance with other adult requests; 54 nursery school children, 3.7–5.9 yrs old, were studied. In Session 1, experimental Ss were asked to perform a chore and encouraged to make this task more enjoyable by either (a) generating a series of subgoals against which their own performance could be measured or (b) imagining the task to be part of a larger fantasy of inherent interest. Some Ss were offered a choice of particular goal-setting or fantasy-transformation strategies; others were assigned specific strategies. Two weeks later, Ss were asked to perform another task by a 2nd experimenter who was blind to the results of Session 1. Compared to appropriate controls, Ss who had been assigned either a goal-setting or a fantasy-transformation strategy showed increased compliance to the later adult request. Ss who chose their own strategies did not show enhanced compliance. Further analyses suggested that these effects on generalized compliance during Session 2 did not depend on differences in prior behavior during Session 1. Implications for enhancing children's compliance in home and school settings are discussed. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of parental and peer attachments by women with mood disorders.

The relationship between perceptions of parental and peer attachments at various ages and adult mood disorders was examined in 156 women classified as having bipolar disorder or unipolar depression or as nonpsychiatric controls. Nonpsychiatric controls reported a decreased attachment to their parents over time, but they also reported an increased closeness to their mothers in adulthood following a distant adolescence. Never hospitalized, moderately depressed Ss showed a similar trend toward decreased relatedness, but moderately depressed Ss did not report reestablishment of a close relationship with their mothers after adolescence. Severely depressed and bipolar Ss reported little attachment to their mother at all ages. Bipolar Ss also reported little connectedness to their fathers throughout their lifespan and severely depressed women felt less attached than nonpsychiatric controls to peers during development. None of the psychiatric groups reported difficulties with parental overcontrol. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships between five after-school activities and academic achievement.

Four hundred twenty-four students in Grades 6 through 12 and 1 parent of each completed a questionnaire concerning student participation in 5 types of after-school activities: homework, television viewing, extracurricular activities, other types of structured after-school groups, and jobs. Student standardized achievement test scores and class grades were also obtained. After-school activities contributed significantly to the prediction of achievement even after the student's gender, grade level, ethnicity, free-lunch eligibility, and level of adult supervision after school were statistically controlled. Generally, more time in extracurricular activities and other structured groups and less time in jobs and television viewing were associated with higher test scores and class grades. More time on homework was associated with better grades. The joint effects of all 5 after-school activities nearly doubled the predictive ability of any single activity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-disclosure of HIV infection: Preliminary results from a sample of Hispanic men.

Examined self-disclosure of HIV infection among 101 adult Hispanic men with HIV infection. Results indicated that disclosure was highly selective and presumably influenced by the social, psychological, and material consequences of informing others about one's medical condition. Ss tended to inform significant others (parents, friends, and lovers) rather than less significant others (employers, landlords, and religious leaders.) There was a high rate of disclosure (75%) to doctors/dentists who were not treating Ss for HIV infection. Gay and bisexual Ss were more inclined to disclose their HIV serostatus to homosexual or bisexual others than to heterosexuals, and to inform those who were aware of their sexual orientation. Disclosure increased with severity of disease independently of length of time since testing seropositive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creating informal play opportunities: Are parents' and preschoolers' initiations related to children's competence with peers?

Preschoolers' social competence may depend on the frequency with which informal play activities are initiated by parents, children, and playmates. In this study, measures of children's peer relations in informal and school contexts and the frequency of parents', children's, and peers' play initiations were obtained with 83 preschool children and their families on 2 occasions. Frequent parent initiations were associated with higher levels of prosocial behavior, lower levels of nonsocial behavior, and, among boys, greater peer acceptance in preschool. Children who were more initiating of informal peer contacts displayed less anxious behavior in school and were better liked by their classmates. Finally, the degree to which parents involved children in the process of arranging informal play activities was positively related to the frequency with which children initiated their own peer contacts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of sexual victimization on sexual satisfaction: A study of the negative-association hypothesis.

Investigated the negative-association explanation of behaviorally specific decreases in postrape sexual satisfaction via retrospective ratings in 4 groups of women representing different degrees of sexual assault. Ss were 116 college women preselected on the basis of their scores on a women's sexual experiences survey. All groups of sexually victimized Ss except those who experienced pressure and/or coercion to engage in sexual intercourse were currently less sexually satisfied on all sexual behaviors than nonvictimized Ss. No behaviorally specific postassault decreases in sexual satisfaction emerged for any group of victimized Ss. Thus, support was not found for the negative-association hypothesis. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sibling relationships on preschoolers' behavior at home and at school.

Observed the social behavior of 34 36–64 mo olds (17 males and 17 females) both in their homes and in their preschools to determine the patterning of interactions among siblings and the consistency in children's interactions with siblings and peers. Results show that at home, preschoolers with older siblings received more aggressive and prosocial behavior than did preschoolers without older siblings; they also played frequently with their older siblings. Preschoolers with younger siblings were more dominant in their interactions than were preschoolers without younger siblings, but they displayed certain types of verbal behavior less often, probably because their young siblings had limited language skills. Indicators of sibling status were not strongly related to behavior at school, but girls who did not have any brothers spent more time unoccupied or as onlookers. Few of the correlations between home and school behaviors were significant, but Ss who were more aggressive toward siblings and Ss who were more often onlookers or unoccupied at home showed similar behavior with peers. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)