The hierarchical nature of stages of moral development.

The notion that stages of moral reasoning develop in an invariant hierarchical sequence has been supported by data indicating that Ss prefer, but fail to understand, higher stage reasoning. However, as J. J. Moran and A. J. Joniak (see record 1979-28407-001) have suggested, this pattern may be artifactually based on nonstage features of moral reasoning, such as vocabulary and syntactic complexity. In the present study, 64 students (8th and 11th graders, undergraduates, and graduates) responded to a series of moral dilemmas and assessed evaluation and understanding of moral-stage-prototypic statements that were equated for level of language. Results support L. Kohlberg's (1981) hierarchical nature of moral stages, despite the equating of language level. Understanding was limited to no more than 1 stage higher than the S's own, and Ss preferred higher over lower stage statements if they were capable of appreciating the difference. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation of political attitude to constraint-oriented and prosocial moral reasoning.

Investigated the relationship between prosocial and constraint-oriented moral reasoning and liberal and humanistic political attitudes. 76 White middle-class 7th-12th graders from a Presbyterian church and a Jewish camp completed a 41-item political questionnaire and a written objective test of moral reasoning based on L. Kohlberg's (1969) conceptualizations. Chi-square analyses revealed that older Ss were significantly more liberal and humanitarian than younger Ss, and older Ss exhibited a significantly higher level of moral reasoning. Correlations between political attitude scores and moral indices partially supported the hypothesis that higher levels of moral reasoning are associated with more liberal and humanistic attitudes: Liberalism scores were significantly related to the prosocial, constraint, and combined moral indices; humanitarian scores were significantly related to the prosocial and combined indices, but not the constraint index. Further research is needed to determine whether findings generalize to other social strata. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in moral reasoning: A comparison of the use of justice and care orientations.

Examined the adequacy of L. Kohlberg's (1971) cognitive-developmental model as a representation of female moral reasoning. Specifically, the claims of C. Gilligan (1982) that there are 2 conceptions of morality—one described as a morality of justice, on which Kohlberg's scheme is based, and one described as a morality of care, seen by Gilligan as more representative of female thinking about moral conflict—were studied. 101 male and 101 female undergraduates filled out a self-report questionnaire on moral dilemmas they had experienced. They then rated their use of both justice and care orientations in resolving those dilemmas. Ss also completed the Interpersonal Disposition Inventory and semantic differential items. The use of the 2 orientations was examined in relationship to S gender, sex role, and perceptions of the 2 orientations. Few significant differences were obtained, except that female Ss were more consistent in their use of a care orientation and male Ss were more consistent in their use of a justice orientation. More feminine males were more likely to report the use of a care orientation than less feminine males. Male and female reasoning about moral conflict is examined in the light of these 2 perspectives, and the relationship of sex roles to endorsement of each perspective is discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between moral reasoning and political orientation.

Previous findings indicating a relationship between moral reasoning and political orientation have been interpreted as reflecting the influence of the level of moral maturity on political attitudes. The present study investigated the alternative possibility that individual differences in adult moral reasoning reflect differences in content of politico-moral idealogy. 73 undergraduates, defining themselves politically as left wing, moderate, or right wing, completed a measure of moral reasoning (Defining Issues Test), once from their own perspective and once from the point of view of either a conservative or a radical. Left-wingers achieved significantly higher scores on principled moral reasoning than did the other 2 groups. However, both right-wing and moderate Ss significantly increased their principled-reasoning scores if they responded as a radical. Results support the view that variations in adult moral reasoning are a function of political position rather than development status. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modification of moral judgment through role playing.

Studied 42 male and 54 female undergraduates to examine the impact of actual role playing on the change of moral judgment maturity (as assessed by L. Kohlberg in 1969). Ss showed both immediate and delayed increases in moral judgment maturity when role playing a moral dilemma against an opponent who employed reasoning above the S's initially assessed stage. Change scores exceeded those of control groups who either performed extraneous tasks or who passively received role-playing arguments. More change was exhibited by Ss at the lower stages. The flexibility of S's responses during role playing was associated with immediate but not delayed change in moral judgment maturity. Ss did not show greater change in response to reasoning 1 stage higher than their own (vs 2 stages higher or 1 stage lower) as had been previously observed by E. Turiel (see record 1966-07567-001). No sex differences were observed in initial stages or in amount of change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of children's prosocial moral judgment.

Examined (a) the development of children's reasoning about prosocial moral dilemmas (those situations in which the needs of one individual conflict with those of others in a context in which the effects of laws, rules, punishment, authorities, and formal obligations are minimized or irrelevant), and (b) the relationship of structure of prosocial moral judgment to story solution. 125 elementary and high school students responded to 4 moral dilemmas involving prosocial conflicts. Elementary school children's reasoning tended to be hedonistic, stereotyped, approval and interpersonally oriented, and/or tended to involve the labeling of others' needs. Stereotyped images of persons and interpersonally or approval-oriented reasoning decreased in frequency with age, whereas clearly empathic considerations and judgments reflecting internalized values increased in use with age. Empathic moral concerns comprised much of the Ss' moral reasoning. Type of moral judgment was related to the way Ss said a moral conflict should be resolved. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of controversy on cognitive perspective taking.

Theorists have posited that controversy among peers in which a person is forced to take the perspectives of others is vital for cognitive and moral development. There is no direct evidence, however, relating controversy and perspective taking. In the present study, 30 undergraduates expressed an opinion about a moral issue and discussed their opinion and reasoning with a confederate (an undergraduate) who always used social order (Kohlberg Stage 4) reasoning. In the controversy condition, the confederate had the opposing opinion and in the no-controversy condition, the same opinion. Compared to those in the no-controversy condition, Ss in the controversy condition indicated more accurate understanding of the structure of the confederate's reasoning than did those in the no-controversy condition. Ss in the no-controversy condition, however, rated that they believed they understood the other's reasoning more than did those in the controversy condition. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of philosophical versus theological education on the moral development of clinical medical ethicists

PURPOSE: Because of the increasing involvement of clinical medical ethicists in patient care and the resultant controversy over the appropriate background, training, and certification of clinical ethicists, this study was designed to investigate whether different educational backgrounds (philosophical versus theological) affected the moral reasoning of clinical ethicists and their orientations toward justice or care. METHOD: From 1987 through 1990, extensive oral interviews were conducted with 50 clinical medical ethicists (26 philosophers and 24 theologians) who were at 32 medical centers in 14 states from all sections of the United States. The interviews were used to gather selected demographic characteristics about the ethicists (age, gender, and educational background) as well as to determine the ethicists' scores for stages of moral reasoning and for moral orientation. Polyserial correlations and multivariant analyses were then performed between the demographic characteristics and the data on moral reasoning and moral orientation. RESULTS: The philosophers and theologians were found not to be significantly different (p > .05) in their moral reasoning skills in terms of either moral stage score or weighted average score. Similarly, the philosophers and theologians were found not to be significantly different in their moral orientations toward justice or care in terms of recognition, predominance, or alignment. No significant relationship was found between age or gender and moral reasoning or moral orientation. CONCLUSION: Based on the results of this study, it appears that clinical medical ethicists, whether philosophers or theologians, are a fairly homogeneous group with regard to their moral development, in terms of both their stages of moral reasoning and their moral orientations toward justice and care.     

Moral and social reasoning and perspective taking in later life: A longitudinal study.

In this study 27 older adults (ages 64–80) and 23 middle-aged adults (ages 35–54) were tested for moral stage, integrative complexity of social reasoning, and perspective-taking levels twice over a 4 year period. Moral reasoning stage levels did not change over time for either age group. Older adults, but not the middle-aged, showed a significant decline over time in level of moral perspective taking. Complexity of reasoning about several interpersonal social issues declined modestly in both age groups. More social-cognitive support, a higher education level, and better self-reported health were all found to be protective factors in forestalling declines in mature adults' sociocognitive reasoning, consistent with other research on cognitive measures in later life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's justifications for their adult and peer-directed compliant (prosocial and nonprosocial) behaviors.

Examined differences in the quality of child–child and adult–child interactions and children's reasoning about their own compliant behaviors. 61 45–65 mo olds were observed in their classrooms and were interviewed briefly concerning their behavior whenever they were seen complying with either an adult's or a peer's request or demand. Only 32% of compliant behaviors requested by adults were prosocial (directly benefited another), whereas 76% of compliant behaviors requested by peers were prosocial. Ss frequently justified behaviors requested by adults with references to authorities' dictates and punishment. Ss attributed behaviors requested by peers to other-oriented or relational (friendship, liking) concerns more frequently than they did behaviors requested by adults. The difference in the use of authority/punishment and other-oriented justifications for peer- and adult-requested behaviors was found with regard to both prosocial and nonprosocial requests; Ss used more justifications regarding liking of others and friendship only when the request was prosocial in content. Data are discussed in terms of their support for theorists' assertions regarding the difference in peer and adult interaction and in relation to the literature on children's reasoning and attributions about prosocial behaviors. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sources of cognitive conflict for stage transition in moral development.

Examined processes of moral-stage transition by comparing the efficacy of various conditions of cognitive conflict for inducing moral development (MD). These conditions could involve 2 sources of conflict: (a) opinions regarding solutions to moral dilemmas and (b) stage of supportive reasoning. 117 5th–7th graders were pretested to determine their stages of cognition, perspective-taking, and MD. The 60 Ss with the necessary stages of cognitive and perspective-taking development for further MD were exposed, in a brief role-playing situation, to one of the intervention conditions. These conditions presented either conflicting or consonant opinions that were supported by reasoning either at the S's own stage or at the next higher stage. Moral reasoning posttests followed after 1 and 7 wks. Results indicate that conflict in both opinions and reasoning induced the greatest MD, although conflict in either opinions or reasoning alone was moderately effective. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A measure of moral values.

Presents a measure of moral values which seems to have acceptable conceptual and psychometric properties, and evidence concerning the personological correlates of mature moral judgment. Using a brief, semiprojective task, moral judgments were elicited from 3 differing groups of male undergraduates (n = 92) which could be reliably (r = .88) scored for maturity of moral judgment. Additional data from 71 Ss indicates that Ss whose moral judgments were rated as mature tended to be sensitive to injustice, well socialized, empathic, and autonomous, and based their judgments on an intuitive understanding of morality. Those whose judgments were rated as immature tended to be insensitive to injustice, less socialized, nonempathic, and conforming, and their moral reasoning had a rational as opposed to an intuitive flavor. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social class, moral orientation, and severity of punishment on boys' moral responses to transgression and generosity.

In 2 experiments with a total of 128 2nd- and 3rd-grade boys, the effects of social class, moral orientation, and severity of punishment on moral responses to transgression and generosity were investigated. In Exp I, a modified version of J. Aronfreed's task (see record 1964-02542-001), the response measures were the self-critical and reparative responses on the transgression trial, the self-critical responses prior to this trial, and the number of candies removed by the S during the task. In Exp II, the S was asked if he wished to donate any of his candy from Exp I to a "needy" child. Results indicate a differential effect of punishment treatment on the responses of the various moral orientation Ss. The flexible moral orientation Ss punished themselves less and donated more candy than the rigid Ss across the punishment conditions. The data suggest that the flexible moral orientation Ss may be more "mature" and "internalized" than the rigid orientation Ss. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A value pluralism model of ideological reasoning.

Tested the value pluralism model, which asserts that people are likely to think about an issue domain in integratively complex ways to the degree that issue domain activates conflicting values that people perceive as (a) important and (b) approximately equally important. The relations between the value hierarchies endorsed by 145 undergraduates (measured by the Rokeach Value Survey) and the policy preferences they expressed on issues designed to activate conflicts between different pairs of basic social/political values (e.g., the question of whether one is willing to pay higher taxes to assist the poor activates a conflict between concern for personal prosperity and social equality). Regression analyses revealed that (a) policy preferences could be best predicted from knowledge of which of the conflicting values Ss deemed more important and (b) the integrative complexity of people's reasoning about policy issues could be best predicted from knowledge of the similarity of the importance rankings of the conflicting values, the mean importance ranking of the 2 conflicting values, and the interaction of these 2 terms. It is concluded that the value pluralism model provides a flexible theoretical framework for predicting Ideology Issue interactions in both the content and structure of policy reasoning. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moral reasoning and conduct problems in the classroom.

Assessed 60 6th-graders for their level of moral development using the Moral Judgment Interview. Ss were also rated by their teachers on classroom conduct. Two hypotheses were investigated: (a) Ss who employ lower stages of moral reasoning will display more conduct problems than those who reason at higher levels; and (b) those who reason at lower levels will display more variability in their conduct ratings than their higher reasoning counterparts. Results, both before and after the effects of sex, verbal ability, and social class were controlled statistically, support both hypotheses. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of conceptual level and group counseling format on adolescent career decision-making processes.

D. E. Hunt's (1971) conceptual level matching model was applied to group career counseling. An experiment studied the interaction effects of conceptual level and group counseling format on adolescents' career decision-making behavior. 26 high school juniors grouped by high and low conceptual level (CL) were randomly assigned to either experimental or simulation counseling groups. Group format varied in degree of structure, with experiential format as low structure. Results show that group format was related to the criteria of choice basis complexity in career decisions for the high CL students only. No significant interaction or main effects were obtained for attitudes toward career decisions and planning activity. High CL Ss in simulation groups scored higher on choice basis complexity than those in the experiential groups. These unexpected findings are interpreted in terms of the conceptual level theory. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulating transitions in moral reasoning as a function of stage of cognitive development.

Examined L. Kohlberg's proposition that cognitive development is necessary though not sufficient for moral development. The specific hypothesis tested, in a pre–posttest control group design involving 44 female adolescents (mean age 16.2 yrs), was that Moral Stage 3 Ss who have attained "early basic formal operations" are more susceptible to attempts to stimulate moral development than Stage 3 Ss who have attained only "beginning formal operations" and lack the cognitive prerequisites for moral transitions. A series of pretests (verbal reasoning and logico-physical problems, and Moral Judgment Interview) was used to obtain Ss who met the appropriate cognitive and moral criteria. The treatment exposed Ss to Stage 4 reasoning in individual role-playing situations. A moral judgment posttest followed 1 wk later. Results confirm the hypothesis, thus providing evidence for the proposition that cognitive development is necessary for moral reasoning development. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accountability and complexity of thought.

Explored the impact of accountability (the need to justify one's views to others) on the complexity of people's thinking on controversial social issues. 48 undergraduates reported their thoughts on 3 issues and then responded to a series of attitude scales relevant to each topic. Ss provided this information under 1 of 4 conditions: expecting their attitudes to be anonymous or expecting to justify their attitudes to an individual with liberal, conservative, or unknown views. Consistent with previous work on strategic attitude shifts, Ss reported more liberal attitudes when they expected to justify their views to a conservative. Accountability also increased the integrative complexity and evaluative inconsistency of the thoughts reported on each issue but only when Ss expected to justify their attitudes to an individual with unknown views. Findings suggest that accountability leads to more complex information processing only when people do not have the cognitively lazy option of simply expressing views similar to those of the individual to whom they feel accountable. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)