Children's justifications for their adult and peer-directed compliant (prosocial and nonprosocial) behaviors.

Examined differences in the quality of child–child and adult–child interactions and children's reasoning about their own compliant behaviors. 61 45–65 mo olds were observed in their classrooms and were interviewed briefly concerning their behavior whenever they were seen complying with either an adult's or a peer's request or demand. Only 32% of compliant behaviors requested by adults were prosocial (directly benefited another), whereas 76% of compliant behaviors requested by peers were prosocial. Ss frequently justified behaviors requested by adults with references to authorities' dictates and punishment. Ss attributed behaviors requested by peers to other-oriented or relational (friendship, liking) concerns more frequently than they did behaviors requested by adults. The difference in the use of authority/punishment and other-oriented justifications for peer- and adult-requested behaviors was found with regard to both prosocial and nonprosocial requests; Ss used more justifications regarding liking of others and friendship only when the request was prosocial in content. Data are discussed in terms of their support for theorists' assertions regarding the difference in peer and adult interaction and in relation to the literature on children's reasoning and attributions about prosocial behaviors. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding moral thought: Effects on moral reasoning and decision making.

89 16–18 yr olds' understanding of processes involved in moral reasoning and decision making was examined in relation to the Ss' level of moral reasoning, extent of prudential concerns, and consistency of decision making. Four qualitatively different levels of understanding of moral thought were identified. These levels were related to moral scores in 2 dilemmas: one involving a fictitious other and the other involving the self as protagonist. Ss with less understanding of moral thought were more likely to demonstrate lower moral scores and more prudential concerns in each perspective and to make a different decision (often prudentially rather than morally based) in the self-perspective. Ss who changed their decision in the self-perspective demonstrated lower self-perspective moral scores than Ss who demonstrated decision consistency. It is suggested that Ss with less understanding of the processes involved in moral thought are more likely to use moral reasons in the service of decisions they want to make for prudential reasons. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations of moral reasoning and vicarious emotion to young children's prosocial behavior toward peers and adults.

Four- and 5-year-old (primarily) Euro-American children (40 girls, 34 boys) participated in a study of moral reasoning, vicarious emotional responding, and prosocial behavior. Children's prosocial behavior and self-reported and facial reactions of vicarious emotion were obtained in response to 2 peer distress films and 2 adult distress simulations. Moral reasoning was assessed with prosocial moral dilemmas. Children's emotional responses were found to be related to analogous types of moral reasoning and were associated in expected ways with helping of peers and adults. Higher levels of moral reasoning were positively related to prosocial behavior. Children high in both other-oriented moral cognitions and sympathy were most helpful toward peers. The pattern of findings suggested that linkages are being formed in the preschool years not only between other-oriented affect and cognitions but also between those that are self-focused in nature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Latchkey children and susceptibility to peer pressure: An ecological analysis.

Data on adolescents' after-school experiences and their susceptibility to peer pressure were derived from surveys administered to a heterogeneous sample of 865 adolescents in Grades 5–9. Consistent with the findings of previous studies, the results show that Ss who reported home after school were not significantly different from those who were supervised by their parents at home during after-school hours. However, when a 2nd sample of latchkey children (n?=?594) was studied to include greater variation in after-school experiences, Ss who were more removed from adult supervision were found to be more susceptible to peer pressure to engage in antisocial activity. Ss who were home alone were less susceptible to peer pressure than are those who were at a friend's house after school, and those who were at a friend's house, in turn, were less susceptible than were those who describe themselves as "hanging out." Moreover, latchkey Ss whose parents knew their whereabouts and those who had been raised authoritatively were less susceptible to peer influence than were their peers, even if their afternoons were spent in contexts in which adult supervision was lax and susceptibility to peer pressure was generally high. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toddlers' social interactions in the context of moral and conventional transgressions in the home.

This study examined toddlers' naturally occurring moral and conventional transgressions in the home. Toddlers (N?=?36), divided between boys and girls at 24 and 36 months of age, were videotaped in two 45-min sessions, one with mothers and one with mothers and familiar peers. Responses to moral and conventional transgressions were coded from the videotapes. Moral transgressions were more frequent in the peer session, whereas conventional transgressions were more frequent when children were alone with mothers. Mothers' responses to conventional transgressions focused on social order and social regulation, whereas maternal and child responses to moral transgressions focused the transgressor on the consequences of the acts for others' rights or welfare. Mothers' affective responses to moral and conventional transgressions did not differ but were more negative than toddlers' responses. Conventional transgressions increased with age, whereas girls' (but not boys') moral transgressions decreased with age. Sequential analyses suggested that this latter finding might be due to mothers' differential responses to girls' and boys' moral transgressions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensions of moral interaction and moral judgment in delinquent and nondelinquent families.

Investigated the intrinsic relationship of parental morality to the development of delinquent behavior in the child. Ss were 8 delinquent and 8 nondelinquent male adolescents and their mothers. The level of moral maturity for mother and son was established through individual administration of L. Kohlberg's structured moral dilemmas, and each adolescent delinquent and nondelinquent and his mother were presented jointly with additional moral dilemmas and instructed to reach mutual agreement on their solution. Analysis of moral discussion between mother and son revealed significant differences between delinquent and nondelinquent families on a variety of interaction dimensions. The relationship of these dimensions to moral judgment and to delinquent behavior is explored. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in moral reasoning: A comparison of the use of justice and care orientations.

Examined the adequacy of L. Kohlberg's (1971) cognitive-developmental model as a representation of female moral reasoning. Specifically, the claims of C. Gilligan (1982) that there are 2 conceptions of morality—one described as a morality of justice, on which Kohlberg's scheme is based, and one described as a morality of care, seen by Gilligan as more representative of female thinking about moral conflict—were studied. 101 male and 101 female undergraduates filled out a self-report questionnaire on moral dilemmas they had experienced. They then rated their use of both justice and care orientations in resolving those dilemmas. Ss also completed the Interpersonal Disposition Inventory and semantic differential items. The use of the 2 orientations was examined in relationship to S gender, sex role, and perceptions of the 2 orientations. Few significant differences were obtained, except that female Ss were more consistent in their use of a care orientation and male Ss were more consistent in their use of a justice orientation. More feminine males were more likely to report the use of a care orientation than less feminine males. Male and female reasoning about moral conflict is examined in the light of these 2 perspectives, and the relationship of sex roles to endorsement of each perspective is discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cross-contextual analysis of boys' social competence: From family to school.

Examined the extent to which the hostile attributions and coercive behaviors of mothers and sons were associated with indices of aggression, acceptance by peers, and teacher-rated social competence in the peer group. Ss were 104 married and divorced mothers and their sons (aged 7–9 yrs). Mothers' and sons' hostile attributions were significantly related to the coerciveness of their interactions, but only mothers' attributions related to reports of the children's aggression in the classroom. Boys who reported many stressful events in their lives behaved coercively with their mothers and were viewed as more aggressive and less socially competent with peers. The relation between stressful life events and the boys' aggression with their peers was mediated, in part, by boys' coerciveness with their mothers. The association between boys' coerciveness with their mothers and social acceptance by peers appeared to be mediated by the aggressiveness of their interactions with their peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mine: Self-definition in 2-year-old boys.

Tested the hypothesis that as children develop a clearer definition of "I" as distinct from others at age 2 yrs, they will also become more concerned with defining self and nonself in their interactions with a peer. 78 2-yr-old boys were administered 4 measures of self-definition, and 40 were then paired with like-scoring Ss in 2 peer interaction sessions. Ss scoring high in self-definition claimed toys and commented on peers more than did low-scoring Ss. A different pattern of interaction was found for high- and low-scoring Ss. After an initial period of wariness, Ss who showed clearer self-definition defined their territory to a peer by claiming toys. When the claiming of toys subsided, positive verbal interaction continued. Low-scoring Ss increased only their exchanging and showing of toys to a peer over time. Discussion focuses on the importance of claiming toys as a progressive developmental step rather than as a sign of selfishness. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of children's prosocial moral judgment.

Examined (a) the development of children's reasoning about prosocial moral dilemmas (those situations in which the needs of one individual conflict with those of others in a context in which the effects of laws, rules, punishment, authorities, and formal obligations are minimized or irrelevant), and (b) the relationship of structure of prosocial moral judgment to story solution. 125 elementary and high school students responded to 4 moral dilemmas involving prosocial conflicts. Elementary school children's reasoning tended to be hedonistic, stereotyped, approval and interpersonally oriented, and/or tended to involve the labeling of others' needs. Stereotyped images of persons and interpersonally or approval-oriented reasoning decreased in frequency with age, whereas clearly empathic considerations and judgments reflecting internalized values increased in use with age. Empathic moral concerns comprised much of the Ss' moral reasoning. Type of moral judgment was related to the way Ss said a moral conflict should be resolved. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability and change in patterns of participation in a parent–child program.

Investigated variations in participation in a neighborhood-based educational support program in 35 18–39 yr old low-income and working-class White mothers of young children who were involved in 6 different parent groups for 1 yr. 30 other Ss had dropped out of participation during this period. Interview data were collected every 6 mo, and staff members kept records of attendance and telephone interactions with Ss. Program participation indices were attendance, relations with program peers, and use of staff services during the 1st 12 mo of involvement. Results show that 8 Ss were peer oriented, 8 Ss were staff oriented, 9 Ss demonstrated increased staff use, and 10 Ss had low involvement. Ss in the 1st 2 groups moved quickly to establish relationships, while Ss in the last 2 groups took a longer time to use program resources. Findings suggest a need for longitudinal measurement of the treatment in evaluation research, a conceptualization of intensive interventions as multidimensional, and the potential usefulness of focusing on interpersonal ties in an intervention program when measuring the treatment. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth-order and social-experience differences in infant–peer interaction.

Compared peer social interaction of 32 firstborn (F) and 32 second-born infants who have a preschool-aged sibling. F Ss were more likely to interact with one another, and these interactions involved longer turn-taking sequences. F Ss were also more likely to approach, gesture, use objects socially, and engage in agonistic acts with one another. In addition, differences associated with exposure to other children were found in social interaction. F Ss who were frequently around preschoolers were less likely to interact with a peer than were F Ss who were rarely with preschoolers. Frequent exposure to toddlers was also related to fewer and briefer interactions with peers. The effect of experience with infant peers, however, was in the opposite direction: Ss with age-mate experience were more successful at initiating interactions with infant peers than were their less experienced counterparts. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of controversy on cognitive perspective taking.

Theorists have posited that controversy among peers in which a person is forced to take the perspectives of others is vital for cognitive and moral development. There is no direct evidence, however, relating controversy and perspective taking. In the present study, 30 undergraduates expressed an opinion about a moral issue and discussed their opinion and reasoning with a confederate (an undergraduate) who always used social order (Kohlberg Stage 4) reasoning. In the controversy condition, the confederate had the opposing opinion and in the no-controversy condition, the same opinion. Compared to those in the no-controversy condition, Ss in the controversy condition indicated more accurate understanding of the structure of the confederate's reasoning than did those in the no-controversy condition. Ss in the no-controversy condition, however, rated that they believed they understood the other's reasoning more than did those in the controversy condition. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The hierarchical nature of stages of moral development.

The notion that stages of moral reasoning develop in an invariant hierarchical sequence has been supported by data indicating that Ss prefer, but fail to understand, higher stage reasoning. However, as J. J. Moran and A. J. Joniak (see record 1979-28407-001) have suggested, this pattern may be artifactually based on nonstage features of moral reasoning, such as vocabulary and syntactic complexity. In the present study, 64 students (8th and 11th graders, undergraduates, and graduates) responded to a series of moral dilemmas and assessed evaluation and understanding of moral-stage-prototypic statements that were equated for level of language. Results support L. Kohlberg's (1981) hierarchical nature of moral stages, despite the equating of language level. Understanding was limited to no more than 1 stage higher than the S's own, and Ss preferred higher over lower stage statements if they were capable of appreciating the difference. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Direction of effect in socialization: A comparison of the parent's versus the child's behavior as determinants of disciplinary techniques.

40 mothers of 4-5 and 7-8 yr olds described the discipline they would use with their children in situations involving 12 misdemeanors. The situations were more likely to elicit the same discipline techniques from different Ss than was a given S to be consistent across the 12 situations. An S's reported discipline appeared to be determined more by what the child did than by some consistent child-rearing approach on the S's part. Two situations involving psychological harm to others elicited reasoning, whereas other kinds of misdemeanors were more likely to elicit some form of power assertion. Ss frequently said they would use multiple techniques in dealing with a misdemeanor, often power assertion in combination with reasoning, with the latter being more likely to follow the former. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in moral reasoning.

Explored the possibility that socialization into different sex roles for men and women may contribute to the observed sex difference in moral development. 40 undergraduates were classified as either masculine, feminine, or androgynous according to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and were administered the Moral Judgment Interview (MJI). For half the Ss, the central character in the MJI dilemmas was a male and for the remaining half, a female. Results reveal that males, when judging from the perspective of a female character, provided reasons for her actions congruent with the Stage 3 level of moral reasoning. However, for the same action portrayed by a male character, reasons for his behavior were in accord with Stage 4. No difference for the female judges was found between the characters of either sex. Regardless of the protagonist's sex, Ss scored at Stage 3. Ss' moral reasoning did not differ according to their sex-role classification. Males, however, held more strongly than females the belief that male decisions on morality are based on law-and-order reasoning, and female decisions are made from an emotional perspective. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital conflict and the quality of young children's peer play behavior: The mediating and moderating role of parent–child emotional reciprocity and attachment security.

Parent–child attachment security and dyadic measures of parent–child positive and negative emotional reciprocity were examined as possible mediators and moderators of the connection between marital conflict and children's peer play behavior. Eighty parents were observed in a laboratory play session with their 15- to 18-month-old child. Subsequently, at 36 months children were observed interacting with peers at their child care setting. Connections between marital conflict and children's positive peer interaction were mediated by mother–child attachment security, mother–child positive emotional reciprocity, and father–child negative emotional reciprocity. Connections between marital conflict and children's negative peer interaction were mediated by mother–child positive emotional reciprocity and father–child attachment security. Parent–child attachment security and negative emotional reciprocity emerged as important moderators of the connection between marital conflict and children's peer play behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression in children: Prevalence and correlates.

Assessed the prevalence of severe depression in 3,020 3rd–5th graders according to the risk variables of sex, age, intellectual functioning, and family income. Also investigated was a set of variables theoretically associated with the construct of childhood depression. Data were gathered by means of peer nominations, self-ratings, teachers' observations, and pupil personnel records. Data from 508 of the children's mothers were also obtained from an individually administered, precoded interview. The overall prevalence rate of depression for Ss, based on peer nominations, was 5.2%. Of the 38 variables hypothesized to be in the domain of childhood depression, 18 correlated significantly with the peer nomination measure. Ss nominated on depressive symptoms by their peers were also nominated as unhappy and unpopular. These Ss also rated themselves as depressed. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulating transitions in moral reasoning as a function of stage of cognitive development.

Examined L. Kohlberg's proposition that cognitive development is necessary though not sufficient for moral development. The specific hypothesis tested, in a pre–posttest control group design involving 44 female adolescents (mean age 16.2 yrs), was that Moral Stage 3 Ss who have attained "early basic formal operations" are more susceptible to attempts to stimulate moral development than Stage 3 Ss who have attained only "beginning formal operations" and lack the cognitive prerequisites for moral transitions. A series of pretests (verbal reasoning and logico-physical problems, and Moral Judgment Interview) was used to obtain Ss who met the appropriate cognitive and moral criteria. The treatment exposed Ss to Stage 4 reasoning in individual role-playing situations. A moral judgment posttest followed 1 wk later. Results confirm the hypothesis, thus providing evidence for the proposition that cognitive development is necessary for moral reasoning development. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)