Information processing and the development of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values.

109 3–10 yr old Ss completed an individualized regression assessment of social values, a central-incidental memory measure, and a free-recall word list task in a study that assessed the possibility that the developmental difference in social values is associated with the development of information-processing capabilities. Findings demonstrate developmental differences in social values and suggest a possible partial explanation for the differences. The modal social value among 3–5 yr olds was individualism, while among 6–7 yr olds and 8–20 yr olds the modal social value was superiority. The oldest Ss expressed a social value involving equality more frequently than did younger Ss. It is suggested that older children, compared to younger children, more often consider the relative nature of their outcomes and more often engage in social comparison. Performance on the memory tasks was consistently associated with age: Ss who expressed an individualism social value generally performed more poorly on the memory measures than did Ss who expressed any other social value. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning via observation during the second year of life.

Studied deferred imitation of object-related actions in 82 12–13 mo olds and in 85 18–29 mo olds to examine the development of competence in observational learning. Three task categories were investigated: simple/single actions, reiterative actions, and sequentially coordinated actions. Results show evidence for deferred imitation for the simple/single actions at 12 mo. When the simple/single action component was isolated in the more complex tasks and its achievement scored, deferred imitation was determinable for additional actions. At 18 mo, improvements occurred in observational learning for all 3 task categories. However, even at 18 mo, serial and sequential coordinations were accomplished by fewer than half of the Ss who had observed actions with these properties. Examination of partial successes at both ages suggested phases in the information sequence. In these phases, encoding was probably inadequate, and action schemes were probably insufficiently differentiated for Ss to fully profit from modeling. Findings suggest that imitative ability is in an early developmental phase by the end of the 1st yr and that information-processing characteristics have more demonstrable effects during the 2nd yr of life. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When power does not corrupt: Superior individuation processes among powerful perceivers.

To examine whether powerful people fail to individuate the less powerful, the authors assigned participants to either a high-power or low-power role for a computer E-mail role play. In 3 studies, participants in the high-power role made decisions and determined the outcomes of interactions; low-power role players had no power and relied on high-power targets for outcome decisions. Studies 1 and 2 found that high-power perceivers better individuated low-power targets. Study 3 demonstrated that high-power role players' superior judgment can be impaired by including a task that directs their responsibility toward organizational rather than interpersonal concerns. In all, results suggest that the effect of power on social judgment may be more complex and multifaceted than has previously been acknowledged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values: An individualized regression and clustering approach.

An individualized regression and clustering procedure was used to examine the plausibility of the conceptual frameworks describing the major cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values. 100 undergraduates rated the desirability of a set of social outcomes that systematically varied with regard to the benefits to oneself and another person. 28 Ss later completed 2 measures of social values. A multiple regression equation was then produced for each S using theoretically specified outcome characteristics to predict the desirability ratings. The partial regression coefficients from the multiple regression equations were then clustered into groups of equations representing groups of Ss who used different decision rules in evaluating the outcomes. Results provide evidence of (a) considerable within-S consistency in the use of social decision rules; (b) 6 clusters or groups of Ss who displayed different social values such as equality and individualism; (c) considerable consistency between Ss' cluster membership, their verbalized social values, and their behavior on a measure of social values; and (d) a sex difference in social values, with males being less likely to focus on group enhancement and more likely to focus on superiority. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quality of decisions: Individuals versus real and synthetic groups.

Compared the quality of decisions on 3 economic problems for individuals, 2 forms of real 5-person groups, and 3 synthetic group-decision rules. A total of 185 undergraduates first made decisions as individuals or as group members and then participated in the opposite condition. Real groups with no previous exposure to the problems made better decisions than did groups whose members had previously made individual decisions on the same tasks, and made decisions superior to a plurality synthetic decision rule, but inferior to the "best man" or I. Lorge and N. Solomon's Model A rule (1955). Both types of real groups outperformed individuals. The relationship between decision quality and riskiness of decision alternatives varied in the 3 decision tasks. Real groups with no prior exposure to the task responded to the suggested risk norm more appropriately than did other decision-making units. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learned helplessness and judgments of control.

A central hypothesis of learned helplessness theory is that exposure to noncontingency produces a reduced ability to perceive response–outcome relations (the postulated "cognitive deficit"). To test this hypothesis, 30 undergraduates were exposed to a typical helplessness induction task and then asked to make judgments of the amount of control their responses exerted over a designated outcome (the onset of a light). An additional 30 undergraduates served as a no-treatment control group. Support for the postulated cognitive deficit would be found if Ss who experienced the induction underestimated the relation between their responses and outcomes. Results, however, demonstrate that induction Ss made higher and more accurate judgments of control than Ss in the control group. This finding clearly fails to support the postulated cognitive deficit and highlights the need for other direct tests of the basic hypotheses of helplessness theory. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social combination models, persuasive arguments theory, social comparison theory, and choice shift.

Individuals and 5-person groups responded 3 successive times to 4 standard choice-dilemma items in the order of either individual–group–individual or individual–individual–individual; 288 male undergraduates served as Ss. Decisions were made for oneself, for a friend, and for a stranger (the hypothetical protagonist of the standard choice-dilemma instructions). Decisions for the stranger were more risky than decisions for a friend, and decisions for a friend were more risky than decisions for oneself. As predicted from persuasive arguments theory, the best fitting social combination model on the most risky item was risk-supported wins; the best fitting model on the most conservative item was conservative-supported wins; and the best fitting model on 2 less extreme items was majority wins. It is emphasized that social combination models and theories of group-interaction processes, such as persuasive arguments theory or social comparison theory, are complementary rather than rival explanations of collective decision making. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Distraction as a source of drive in social facilitation research.

Distraction–conflict theory maintains that findings from social facilitation research result from the fact that the presence of others distracts Ss, thereby creating attentional conflict, which in turn produces drive effects. In support of this position, there already is a large amount of data indicating that presenting various forms of distraction during task settings produces drive effects. The present research demonstrated that in a close replication of a social facilitation study by N. B. Cottrell et al (1967), 64 undergraduates showed indications across several measures of being more distracted in audience conditions than when they were alone. Moreover, this effect occurred regardless of whether the audience facilitated (simple) performance of impaired (complex) performance. Results support distraction–conflict theory. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responsibility and decisionmaking: Factors that contribute to careful attention in a choice task.

Hypothesized that factors that heighten sense of responsibility would affect decision making. In Exp I, 32 female undergraduates were paired and completed a decision-making task, the nature of which permitted responsibility to be shifted between task positions. Relatively subtle shifts produced significant differences in the time spent on choices and incidental learning. In Exp II, 100 female undergraduates completed a task under low or high consequences and low or high choice conditions. Ss also completed a memory test. Choice and consequences affected the time taken to make a series of decisions, while serious consequences improved later recognition memory for items in the choice task. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern and social facilitation.

Investigated the task performance of 120 Type A coronary-prone undergraduates relative to 120 Type B's (as determined by the Jenkins Activity Survey, Form T) in 3 types of social situations: alone, with a similarly performing coactor, or with a better performing coactor. Results indicate that Type A's performance on a simple task was facilitated by the presence of either a similar or superior coactor, whereas the presence of coactors impaired performance on a complex task. Type B's showed weak and nonsignificant facilitation effects that occurred only in the presence of similar coactors. Results are discussed in terms of (a) the Type A's concern about evaluation, achievement, and social comparison and (b) G. S. Sanders and R. S. Baron's (see record 1976-06212-001) distraction–conflict theory of social facilitation. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control for positive and negative outcomes.

Performed an experiment in which 107 undergraduates, rated as internals, moderates, and externals on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, worked at a difficult angle-matching task that was purportedly skill determined. Ss were given an instructional set stressing the attainment of a positive outcome or the avoidance of a negative outcome contingent on successful task performance. As predicted, internals outperformed externals only in the negative outcome condition. For positive outcomes, there were no differences in performance. A separate scale (the Steiner Malevolent–Benevolent Questionnaire) designed to measure locus of control for positive and/or negative outcomes successfully identified individuals whose performance was enhanced by the prospect of avoiding a negative outcome and those whose performance was enhanced by the prospect of obtaining a positive outcome. Attribution data collected following bogus success or failure feedback also indicated that internals and externals differed in feelings of control for negative outcomes only. Results support an argument that the Rotter scale is more predictive of responses to negative events. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Minors' attitudes and competence toward participation in psychoeducational decisions.

27 7–23 yr olds, 33 14–25 yr olds, and 21 16–20 yr olds enrolled in a university-based day-school program for children with learning and related behavior problems were given a choice about participating in decisions about their subsequent placements. Ss were also offered instructions on how to prepare for participating in the decision process. Structured questions and ratings of observed behavior were used to measure Ss' current and subsequent interest in participation, perspective of competence to participate, interest in instruction to increase competence, expectations, actual participation, and judgments of outcome. Findings were similar to those found in a previous study by the present authors (see record 1984-16316-001). A high proportion of Ss wanted to participate, perceived themselves as competent to do so, knew what outcomes they wanted, followed through, and judged their involvement as effective. Most Ss were interested in improving skills related to such participation. Adults involved (6 teachers, 76 parents, and 4 school psychologists) rated the participation of Ss as effective. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships of goal orientation, metacognitive activity, and practice strategies with learning outcomes and transfer.

A model of learning transfer that focused on the active role of the learner was developed and tested within a complex decision-making task. The study examined how individual differences, learning strategies, and training outcomes influenced transfer of learning to a more complex task. A sample of 93 undergraduate students participated in a 2-day radar operations study. Hierarchical regression analysis results indicated that mastery orientation was positively related to metacognitive activity of the learner. Metacognitive activity was significantly related to knowledge acquisition, skilled performance at the end of training, and self-efficacy. All 3 of these training outcomes were related to performance on the transfer task. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's concepts of volume and flotation.

Conducted a pilot study in which children (aged 7–9 yrs and 11–13 yrs) were asked to judge which 1 out of 3 wooden blocks would float (or sink), given weight and volume information for each block relative to a block that was known to float (or sink). Analysis of explanations indicated that judgments may have been based on the size–weight illusion. An experiment exploring the basis of flotation judgments was conducted with 14 children aged 7 yrs 1 mo to 9 yrs 6 mo and 16 children aged 11 yrs 4 mo to 14 yrs 11 mo that involved a test for judgment of volume based on information integration theory. Results show that Ss aged 7–24 yrs accurately judged volume by integrating 3 dimensions—width, depth, and height—according to the multiplicative rule. A rule assessment of their flotation judgments showed no age differences in initial rule, with weight rules being most popular. However, after feedback there were marked age effects; the 7–9 yr olds abandoned their initial rule without finding an alternative, and the 11–24 yr olds were generally able to find the correct flotation rule. It is concluded that children aged 7–24 yrs can judge volume but 7–9 yr olds have difficulty with the concept of flotation, possibly because it requires mental comparison of 2 ratios, a task known to be difficult for 7–9 yr olds. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of member status differences and task type on group consensus and member position change.

Investigated how status differences among discussants, together with the type of task, influenced the social-decision schemes that guide consensus and group performance among 345 male undergraduates. Members of 3-person groups received feedback from a test of decision-making ability that created 1 of 3 task-relevant status distributions (conditional, 2-3-4; outstanding, 2-2-5; and equal, 3-3-3 [larger values indicate higher status]) and reached consensus decisions on 1 intellective task (a mystery problem) and 2 judgmental tasks (personnel selection and allocation of resources). The latter 2 tasks had no correct answers and were particularly susceptible to normative factors. The particular social-decision scheme model (reformulated to allow for individual differences) that successfully predicted group decisions emphasized both task and status distribution: Intellective problem responses were predicted by a truth-wins model in the equal and conditional power conditions and a power-wins model in the outstanding power condition. Discussion-induced personal change (individual preferences before–after discussion) was highly dependent on status level, except for the intellective task, for which change was independent of status, but greater in overall magnitude than for the other 2 tasks. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental differences in responses to a television character's appearance and behavior.

In a 2?×?2?×?3 design, 52 3–5 yr olds, 58 6–7 yr olds, and 59 9–10 yr olds viewed a videotape in which a female protagonist's appearance (attractive, ugly) was factorially varied with her behavior (kind, cruel). Perceptions of the protagonist and predictions of the story's outcome were assessed. Based on theoretical and empirical evidence of a developmental decrease in perceptual dependence, the influence of the woman's appearance was expected to decrease with age, and the influence of her behavior was expected to increase with age. These expectations were confirmed. A 2nd study was conducted with 40 4–5 yr olds, 41 6–7 yr olds, and 34 9–21 yr olds to rule out the alternative explanation that younger children possess stronger physical appearance stereotypes than do older children. In this study, Ss did not have information about the woman's behavior. It was found that Ss at all 3 age levels demonstrated appearance stereotyping. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-interest and fairness in problems of resource allocation: Allocators versus recipients.

Two studies explored the tension between self-interest and the equality norm in problems of resource allocation. Study 1 presented graduate business students with a hypothetical task requiring them to make a series of managerial decisions. On learning the outcome of those decisions, they were asked to divide a bonus pool between self and a rival manager (who had opted for very different decisions and achieved either the same results as self on 2 criteria or a better result on 1 criterion and a worse result on the other criterion). Study 2 required Stanford and San Jose State undergraduates to consider the division of a hypothetical scholarship fund between candidates from their 2 schools. Data from both studies contrasted the apparent evenhandedness and lack of self-interest manifested by allocators with the self-serving responses of evaluators. Furthermore, when faced with different claims, participants were inclined to justify an unequal allocation of resources—provided that they, or a representative of their group, received the larger share—that few personally would have recommended, demanded, or imposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social facilitation: A self-presentational view.

Offers a self-presentational account of performance in others' presence. The account attributes social facilitation to the performer's active regulation of a public image, and it attributes social impairment to embarrassment following loss of public esteem. Individuals lose esteem by making numerous errors on difficult tasks. This self-presentational analysis was tested in a study of context effects in verbal learning. 75 female undergraduates served as Ss. Two tasks were studied: a difficult task that included a few simple items and an easy task that included a few complex items. Consistent with the self-presentational analysis (but not with drive theories of social facilitation), the presence of an observer impaired the learning of simple items if those items were embedded within a difficult task. Also, an observer's presence did not impair the learning of complex items if those items were embedded within an easy task. Questionnaire responses suggest a naturally occurring confound between task difficulty and perceived failure. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lack of acceptance of reciprocity norms in preschool children.

Investigated preschool children's acceptance of the reciprocity norms that allow retaliation and that require returning favors. In 2 studies, Ss were shown cartoons that portrayed reciprocal or nonreciprocal aggressive and prosocial behavior; they were then asked for their evaluation of the actor and their attribution about the cause of his behavior. The 1st study with 31 36–68 mo olds employed a between-Ss design; the 2nd with 35 34–63 mo olds employed a within-S design. Although there were some significant differences in attributions for reciprocal and nonreciprocal behavior, there were no significant differences in evaluations. It therefore appears that preschool children do not accept reciprocity norms. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of explanation and counterexplanation on the development and use of social theories.

Social theories—beliefs about relations between variables in the social environment—are often used in making judgments, predictions, or decisions. Three experiments, with 146 undergraduates, examined the role of explanation in the development and use of social theories. It was found that explaining how or why 2 variables might be related led to an increased belief in and use of the explained theory. A counterexplanation task was effective in eliminating this initial explanation bias. These explanation and counterexplanation effects occurred with simple belief measures and with complex social judgments involving multiple predictor variables. New, explanation-induced beliefs did not lead to biased evaluation of new data. However, exposure to new data indicating a zero relation between the social variables in question moderated but did not eliminate the explanation-induced theories. Implications for decision making in real-world contexts and for understanding the cognitive underlying explanation effects in the present and in related judgment domains were also examined. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)