Microwave drying of germinated brown rice: Correlation of drying characteristics with the final quality

Drying characteristics influence the formation of quality including visual color and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) of germinated brown rice (GBR) subjected to microwave drying. In microwave drying, microwave intensities induced microscopic pores inside GBR to enhance the drying rate in initial stage, while rising temperatures caused gelatinization of starch granules to hinder the drying rate in later stage. The higher microwave intensity resulted in the greater non-uniformity of temperature inside the grain layer, which dominated the moisture content and final quality indexes of GBR. However, the coupling effects of temperature rising and moisture reducing failed to stimulate the glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) activity for the GABA synthesis, but may cause the degradation of GABA. The non-uniformity of microwave drying influenced the evaluation of GABA content in the dried GBR, and the suitable average grain temperature of 64–67 °C may retain relatively high GABA content. The critical temperature for preventing the serious browning and charred kernels inside the grain layer was 132 °C and 170 °C, respectively. Microwave intensity of 3–4 W/g may be suitable for drying of GBR considering high drying efficiency and product quality.     

Effect of different soaking and germination methods on bioactive compounds of germinated brown rice

Germination of brown rice can be completed by full soaking and partial soaking methods. This study aimed to analyse the influence of germination methods on the bioactive accumulations in germinated brown rice (GBR). Germination was conducted in four treatments: (i) membrane reactor with full (RFS) and (ii) partial soaking method soaking (RAG), (iii) manual soaking for complete germination (MFS) and (iv) partial manual soaking in combination with atmospheric germination (MAG). The results showed that soaking BR in membrane reactor accelerated the shoots' growth and increased GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) content compared with the manual soaking method. The RAG treatment achieved higher GABA content (up to 125 mg/100 g), total phenolic and flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity than other germination methods. The main finding of this research indicates that membrane reactor effectively enhances the growth of sprouts. The combination of partial soaking in membrane reactor and atmospheric germination (RAG) is a suited method to increase GABA accumulation in GBR.     

Effects of germination time on the structural,physicochemical and functional properties of brown rice

Germinated brown rice (GBR) is a gluten-free food raw material. Its tissue structure, physicochemical properties and functional properties depend on the germination time. In this study, rapid viscosity analyses, differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction et al were used to analyse the structural, physicochemical and functional changes in brown rice (BR) during germination. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), total phenolic compound, glutathione (GSH) and amino acid contents increased during germination. GBR exhibited the highest GSH (22.70 mg per 100 g) and amino acid (8.02 mg per 100 g) contents at 24 h and the highest GABA content (253.35 mg per 100 g) at 36 h. Furthermore, BR germinated for 36 h showed greater enthalpy (ΔH) than ungerminated BR. Although GBR showed less crystallinity than ungerminated BR, germination did not change the crystalline structure type of starch (A-type). These results inform choices of the appropriate applications of GBR to promote its utilisation in the food industry.     

Effects of parboiling and fluidized bed drying on the physicochemical properties of germinated brown rice

Changes in physicochemical properties of germinated brown rice (GBR) and parboiled germinated brown rice (PGBR) dried in a fluidized bed dryer at 110–150 °C were investigated. Results indicated that parboiling altered the properties of GBR owing to starch gelatinisation. The moisture content, yellowness, peak viscosity and hardness of PGBR increased, but internal fissured kernel, cooking time, water absorption and total solids loss decreased when compared to GBR. γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) content in GBR was 23.31 mg per 100 g and was reduced to 17.91 mg per 100 g in PGBR. The drying times required to reduce the moisture content of GBR and PGBR to 16% d.b. were 4.01–7.65 min and 5.11–9.50 min, respectively. Final moisture content, which is optimum to prevent internal fissures of dried GBR and PGBR, was 27–29% and 25–28% d.b., respectively. The same trend was observed in the physicochemical properties of GBR and PGBR when increasing drying temperature and time.     

Quantitative microbiological profiles of brown rice and germinated brown rice

Among health conscious people, brown rice (BR) and germinated brown rice (GBR) are increasingly more popular for consumption in Korea because their nutritional values are greater than those of ordinary white rice (WR). The overall microbial counts for BR were higher than those for WR and those of GBR were higher than those of BR. Interestingly, the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) counts in GBR increased markedly and their selected representatives were Weissella confusa, Pediococcus pentosaceus, and Lactobacillus fermentum. To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to enumerate and compare LAB loads on WR, BR, and GBR.     

发芽糙米与稻谷的谷氨酸脱羧酶活力及γ-氨基丁酸含量比较

比较了糙米与稻谷发芽期间及培养结束后的静置过程中谷氨酸脱羧酶(GAD)活力、γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)及谷氨酸(Glu)含量变化情况。结果表明,糙米和稻谷在(32±1)℃条件下,以1.2 L/min的通气量,用含有0.1%L-谷氨酸、0.1%抗坏血酸的培养液浸渍发芽,生长速率和呼吸速率均以糙米为快。培养结束时,发芽糙米中GABA含量和Glu含量分别比发芽稻谷增加64.05%和14.68%,空气中放置8 h后发芽糙米中GABA含量比发芽结束时增加了24.32%,整个发芽和静置期间发芽糙米中GAD活力始终高于发芽稻谷。     

Effects of parboiling and infrared radiation drying on the quality of germinated brown rice

This research investigated the physicochemical properties, bioactive compounds, and microstructure of brown rice (BR) and non-parboiled and parboiled germinated brown rice (GBR and PGBR). The GBR and PGBR were treated by sun, hot-air oven, or infrared irradiation (IR) drying. The results showed that IR drying enhanced the bioactive compounds of non-parboiled GBR, including γ-aminobutyric acid, α-tocopherol, and total phenolic compounds, while γ-oryzanol and antioxidant activity were comparable to BR. Meanwhile, IR drying significantly improved the head rice yield (HRY) of PGBR while reducing fissured grains. Parboiling also affected the color values of rice grains, suggesting the diffusion of husk color into endosperm and the formation of brown polymers by the Maillard reaction. In addition, IR drying altered the internal structure of rice grains, resulting in abundant intercellular voids. Specifically, the IR-dried non-parboiled GBR significantly enhanced essential bioactive compounds and improved HRY while maintaining the color of standard BR.     

Accumulating mechanism of γ‐aminobutyric acid in soybean (Glycine max L.) during germination

γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) has been found accumulating significantly in soybean seeds during germination. However, the mechanism of the accumulating process is not clear. Therefore, gene expression, enzyme activity and metabolites associated with GABA shunt in ZH 13 soybean during germination were analysed in this paper. GABA content in 5‐day germinated soybean was 0.26 ± 0.016 mg g^?1 DW, which was equivalent to six times concentration of original soybean. The GAD activity has a positive effect on the accumulation of GABA, as well as the GABA‐T activity was found to play a significant role in the degradation of GABA. The expression levels of GmGAD and GmGABA‐T may affect the GABA content by regulating the respective enzyme activities. In conclusion, upregulation of GAD and downregulation of GABA‐T may cause the accumulation of GABA.     

Accumulation of γ-aminobutyric acid in germinated soybean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Glycine max</Emphasis> L.) in relation to glutamate decarboxylase and diamine oxidase activity induced by additives under hypoxia

High levels of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) accumulate in plant tissues under various stresses and exogenous additives. The purpose of this research is to provide an effective finding that can prove a rapid accumulation of GABA in germinated soybean (Glycine max L.) in response to different additives under hypoxia. Hypoxia-induced GABA accumulation in soybean embryo resulted in part from polyamine oxidation. Response to different concentration of glutamate (Glu), pyridoxal phosphate, arginine, CuCl₂, NaCl, and CaCl₂, a significant difference including GABA accumulation, changes of Glutamate decarboxylase (GAD), and Diamine oxidase activity (DAO) activity in germinated soybean under hypoxia occurred (p < 0.05) and the maximum accumulation of GABA were 4.07, 3.02, 3.50, 3.26, 4.00, and 3.30 g kg⁻¹ DW respectively, which were significantly higher than those germinated soybean under normal culture (CK) and hypoxia culture (CK₀) (p < 0.05). The GAD and DAO have different distributions in cotyledon and embryo of germinated soybean, and the enzyme activity mainly located in embryo of germinated soybean. Germinated soybean is a good resource of GABA-rich food. Different additives have significant effects on GABA production, among which Glu and NaCl are ideal material for GABA accumulation.     

原料米对广东客家黄酒发酵及产γ-氨基丁酸的影响

该文研究不同原料米(糯米、粳米、籼米)对客家黄酒发酵过程中总糖、总酸、氨基酸态氮、γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)含量及谷氨酸脱羧酶(GAD酶)活性的影响。结果表明,在总糖、总酸、氨基酸态氮指标方面,糯米、粳米、籼米都适合酿制客家黄酒,但糯米黄酒、粳米黄酒总糖、总酸和氨基酸态氮含量较高;发酵过程中,GABA含量糯米黄酒最高,粳米黄酒次之,籼米黄酒最低;贮藏一个月后,糯米黄酒GABA含量达到260.45 mg/L,分别为粳米黄酒、籼米黄酒的1.13、1.44倍。糯米、粳米黄酒的GAD酶活性较大且两者接近,而籼米GAD酶活性较小,与糯米、粳米相差较大。综上所述,对比三种原料米,糯米最适合发酵客家黄酒及产GABA,粳米次之,籼米较不利。     

未熟粒糙米低氧胁迫发芽期间生理生化变化研究

以未熟粒糙米为试材,研究其低氧胁迫发芽期间主要生理生化变化。结果表明：经低氧胁迫发芽48 h,未熟粒糙米的发芽率达79.3%,芽长为1.92 mm,呼吸强度提高5.6 倍,容重达0.79 g/mL;发芽期间其含水量快速增加后趋于平缓,淀粉含量持续下降,还原糖和游离氨基酸含量则逐渐增加,均与完熟粒糙米变化趋势一致且无显著性差异;未熟粒糙米中γ-氨基丁酸（γ-aminobutyric acid,GABA）含量随发芽时间延长呈逐渐增加趋势,发芽48 h时GABA含量增加1.08 倍,且谷氨酸脱羧酶（glutamate decarboxylase,GAD）活力和谷氨酸（glutamic acid,Glu）含量与对照组无显著差异。低氧胁迫下未熟粒发芽糙米中GABA含量与芽长、呼吸强度、游离氨基酸和GAD活力均呈极显著正相关（P＜0.01）,与淀粉和谷氨酸含量呈极显著负相关（P＜0.01）。低氧胁迫发芽改善了未熟粒糙米营养品质,是富集GABA的良好原料。     

Antioxidant activity of white rice,brown rice and germinated brown rice (in vivo and in vitro) and the effects on lipid peroxidation and liver enzymes in hyperlipidaemic rabbits

Antioxidant activity of different rice extract and the effect on the levels of antioxidant enzyme activity, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), vitamin E, lipid peroxidation and liver enzymes in hyperlipidaemia rabbits were investigated. Germinated brown rice (GBR) has the highest antioxidant activity compared to white rice (WR) and brown rice (BR). All rice grains increased the activity of SOD and GPx. However, vitamin E levels increased only in the groups that received the BR and GBR diets. The reduction of lipid peroxidation levels and activity of hepatic enzymes (alanine transferase, ALT and aspartate transaminase, AST) were only significantly observed in the GBR group. In conclusion, GBR supplementation has the greatest impact on increasing antioxidant enzyme activity and vitamin E level and on reducing lipid peroxidation in hypercholesterolaemia rabbit, thereby preventing the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. Furthermore, GBR diet can also reduce the level of hepatic enzymes.     

Effect of pre‐germination time of brown rice on serum cholesterol levels of hypercholesterolaemic rats

BACKGROUND: Brown rice is unpolished rice with immeasurable benefits for human health. Brown rice (BR) and pre‐germinated brown rice (PGBR) are known to contain various functional compounds such as γ‐oryzanol, dietary fibre and γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA). In the present study, the experimental diets containing BR and PGBR (24, 48 h pre‐germination) were used to investigate the influence of pre‐germination time of brown rice on blood cholesterol in Sprague–Dawley male rats. RESULTS: Hypercholesterolaemia and elevation of LDL‐cholesterol were successfully ameliorated by the experimental diets containing BR and PGBR (24 and 48 h pre‐germination). As compared to the control sample, the pre‐germination time had a significant (P < 0.05) effect on blood cholesterol of Sprague–Dawley male rats. It was also found that the significantly (P < 0.05) better effect on lipid profile of hypercholesterolaemic rats was observed by prolonging the pre‐germination time. As compared to non‐germinated brown rice, the germinated brown rice showed the higher cardio‐protective effect on hypercholesterolaemic Sprague–Dawley male rats. CONCLUSION: The present study suggests that the changes of blood cholesterol can be mainly modulated by using the PGBR rather than BR. The prolonging of pre‐germination time led to an increase in the bioactive components, thereby providing a more efficient functional diet affecting the high blood cholesterol. This study suggests that PGBR can be used instead of BR and polished rice in the human diet. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

基于柱后衍生发芽糙米中γ-氨基丁酸HPLC检测方法的建立及应用

建立了一种能与17种常见氨基酸分离的发芽糙米中γ-氨基丁酸的检测方法,即采用Hypercarb column色谱柱,以邻苯二甲醛作为衍生试剂进行柱后衍生,检测波长为338 nm,γ-氨基丁酸的定量线性范围为0.2～50 mg/L,线性方程为A=0.304 3C+0.065 3,相关系数R2为0.999 9。确定了发芽糙米中γ-氨基丁酸的提取条件,发芽糙米经20%甲醇-水提取后,用1.0%甲酸稀释,进样检测,回收率可达97.7%。按照上述提取与检测方法,对不同种糙米制品中γ-氨基丁酸含量进行了测定,发芽糙米中γ-氨基丁酸含量明显高于普通糙米,发芽糙米经高温挤压与模拟蒸煮处理后,其γ-氨基丁酸含量均无明显变化。     

Effects of cultivar and culture conditions on γ‐aminobutyric acid accumulation in germinated fava beans (Vicia faba L.)

BACKGROUND: High levels of γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) accumulate in plant tissues under various stresses. GABA accumulation is also influenced by cultivar. This aim of this study was to select the most promising cultivar of fava bean for GABA accumulation and to optimise the culture conditions for GABA production in germinated fava beans by response surface methodology based on central composite design (CCD). RESULTS: GABA content and glutamate decarboxylase activity in germinated seeds of cultivar S2 were significantly higher than those in other cultivars (P < 0.05). A significant negative correlation (r = −0.765, P < 0.05) between germination percentage and 1000‐kernel weight was observed. There was a linear relationship between GABA content and sprout length (R² = 0.816). The regression model fitted to the experimental data of CCD was valid in predicting GABA production in germinated fava beans. Temperature and pH value of the culture solution had significant effects on GABA content in germinated fava beans. Under optimal culture conditions (33.6 °C, pH 3.19 and an air flow rate of 1.19 L min⁻¹), GABA content reached up to 2.41 g kg⁻¹ dry weight, about 48 times that in raw seeds. CONCLUSION: Germinated fava bean is a good resource of GABA‐rich food. Both cultivar and culture conditions have significant effects on GABA production. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Changes in γ-aminobutyric acid content and related enzyme activities in Jindou 25 soybean (Glycine max L.) seeds during germination

In order to accumulate γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), soybean seeds (cultivar Jindou 25) were germinated for 102 h at different temperatures (19, 25 and 32 °C). The content of GABA, glutamic acid and the activity of the glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) and GABA transaminase (GABA-T) in soybeans during germination were investigated. The results showed that the germination temperature and germination time had great influences on GABA content and the related enzyme activities in soybean seeds. As compared to raw soybeans, an increase in the content of GABA and glutamic acid was observed, as well as GAD activity in soybeans during germination, while germination at 32 °C was better for accumulating GABA in soybeans. The GABA-T activity first decreased and then increased at 19 °C and 25 °C, on the contrary, it first increased and then decreased sharply during germination at 32 °C. These results indicate that the increase of GABA content can be attributed to the changes of GAD and GABA-T activities rather than enough glutamic acid resulting from the degradation of protein during germination of Jindou 25 seeds. However, more assays need to be further performed with more soybean cultivars.     

厌氧胁迫对发芽糙米中γ-氨基丁酸含量变化的影响

以籼稻"扬两优6号"为材料,利用CO2和N2在糙米萌发不同阶段制造厌氧环境,研究不同气体种类的厌氧胁迫及处理时间对发芽糙米中GABA积累的影响,探讨促进发芽糙米中GABA积累的适宜工艺。结果表明,CO2和N2厌氧处理时段以及持续时间均对发芽糙米中的GABA含量有显著影响(P0.05)。在发芽前期进行厌氧处理一般会抑制GABA的积累,在发芽中后期,尤其是在发芽60~72 h时段则起显著促进作用(P0.05),且CO2的促进效果明显优于N2(P0.05)。发芽0~12 h期间进行厌氧处理会抑制GAD活力(P0.05),在发芽24~72 h期间则可以显著提高GAD活力(P0.05)。糙米在发芽66~72 h期间进行CO2厌氧环境处理,在72 h时发芽糙米中GABA含量为(965.44±29.35)mg/100 g(干基),显著高于其他时段处理后的含量,且比未经过厌氧处理的发芽糙米高出460.13 mg/100 g(干基)。     

活性化糙米富集γ-氨基丁酸的雾化液组分优化

通过单因素试验和正交试验,优化了糙米湿润活性化富集γ-氨基丁酸(γ-aminobutyric acid,GABA)的雾化液p H值、VB6及Ca Cl2浓度,同时研究了最优条件下活性化糙米谷氨酸脱羧酶活力及主要物质含量变化。结果表明:最优培养条件为雾化液p H 3.5、VB6浓度2 mmol/L和Ca Cl2浓度10 mmol/L;在此条件下,活性化糙米中GABA含量可达7.67 mg/100 g,为原料糙米的2.74倍。随着活性化时间的延长,糙米中游离氨基酸、还原糖含量及谷氨酸脱羧酶活力呈现逐渐增加的趋势,可溶性蛋白及淀粉含量呈现逐渐下降趋势。相关性分析表明,GABA含量与谷氨酸、游离氨基酸、可溶性蛋白含量之间均显著相关。     

Germination Conditions Affect Physicochemical Properties of Germinated Brown Rice Flour

ABSTRACT:  Germinated brown rice has been reported to be nutritious due to increased free gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The physicochemical properties of brown rice (BR) and glutinous brown rice (GNBR) after germination as affected by different steeping times (24, 36, 48, and 72 h depending on the rice variety) and pHs of steeping water (3, 5, 7, and as-is) were determined and compared to those of the nongerminated one (control). As the steeping time increased or pH of steeping water decreased, germinated brown rice flours (GBRF) from both BR and GNBR had greater reducing sugar, free GABA and α-amylase activity; while the total starch and viscosity were lower than their respective controls. GBRFs from both BR and GNBR prepared after 24-h steeping time at pH 3 contained a high content of free GABA at 32.70 and 30.69 mg/100 g flour, respectively. The peak viscosity of GBRF obtained from both BR and GNBR (7.42 to 228.22 and 4.42 to 58.67 RVU, respectively) was significantly lower than that of their controls (255.46 and 190.17 RVU, respectively). The principal component analysis indicated that the important variables for discriminating among GBRFs, explained by the first 2 components at 89.82% of total explained variance, were the pasting profiles, α-amylase activity, and free GABA.     

发芽糙米γ-氨基丁酸形成的谷氨酸脱羧酶活性与底物变化的相关性分析

以糙米为原料,采用浸泡发芽结合超声波逆境处理方式增加糙米中γ-氨基丁酸（γ-aminobutyric acid,GABA）含量。对发芽过程中谷氨酸（glutamic acid,GA）含量、谷氨酸脱羧酶（glutamic acid decarboxylase,GAD）活性及GABA含量进行分析,研究GA含量、GAD活性与GABA含量之间的关系。结果表明：随着发芽时间延长,GABA及GA含量持续明显增加,且GABA与GA含量有显著相关性（P＜0.05）。随着发芽时间延长,GAD活性呈先增后降再增的趋势;在发芽0～48?h之间,对照组GAD活性（以GABA量计）均值为9.25?nmol/g,GABA含量增加到6?倍以上;在48～60?h之间,GABA增量不明显。与对照相比,超声波处理促进GA含量增加2?倍以上,并且快速提高GAD活性,在36?h时发芽糙米中GABA含量最高达41.85?mg/100?g。