居民用水量的影响因素研究评述

居民用水是城市生活用水的主要组成部分,占城市生活用水的比例很大。国内外大量研究表明,居民用水量的变化是多种因素综合作用的结果。研究这些影响因素,对于控制城市生活用水量的增长有着重要意义。对国内外有关居民用水量影响因素方面的理论研究和案例研究进行了评述,总结发现居民用水量与居民收入、水价、节水技术与器具的发明、社会文化特征、用水管理政策等多种因素有关,分析了各因素的作用机制,为政府制定相关用水管理政策提供参考。     

Residential Water Use: Efficiency, Affordability, and Price Elasticity

In practice, water pricing is the main economic instrument used to discourage the wasteful use of residential water. Owing to considerations of affordability, residential water is systematically underpriced because water is essential for life. Such a low price results in water being used inefficiently. This paper proposes a system that supplements the existing price system with a cap-and-trade measure to reconcile conflicts among the goals of residential water use. It forces all people (independent of income) to be faced with reasonable price signals and to use water efficiently. The poor could, however, gain from trade and afford water. By taking advantage of the agent-based model, a simulation of this system applied to Taipei, Taiwan shows that those with lower income per capita are better off under this system even though the equilibrium price of residential water is higher. The simulated average price elasticity of market demand is ?0.449.     

Modelling Interactions Between Lot-Scale Decentralised Water Infrastructure and Urban Form – a Case Study on Infiltration Systems

Modelling the design and implementation of urban water infrastructure (particularly decentralised systems) for strategic planning and policymaking requires detailed information of the spatial environment and quantitative knowledge of social preferences. Currently available models, however, mostly use land use, population and impervious cover data without much regard for detailed urban form or society. This study develops an algorithm for determining urban form from minimal spatial data input by incorporating local planning regulations. The interaction between urban form and implementation of lot-scale infiltration systems under different social, biophysical and climate constraints is then investigated, firstly by looking at how this varies in different residential land uses and subsequently in a case study of a typical Melbourne residential subdivision of mixed land uses. Feasibility of infiltration and its downstream impact (runoff volume, frequency and pollution) were assessed for a range of social preferences (quantified as allowable garden space) and climate scenarios (30 % increase/decrease in rainfall and evapotranspiration). Performance indicators were determined through long-term simulation with the MUSIC software. Results show how different biophysical, planning, social and climate conditions affect infiltration feasibility as well as system performance. High infiltrating soils, for example, allow smaller, well-performing and socially less-imposing systems. Low infiltrating soils lead to larger system sizes, occupy much of the allotment’s garden space, but nevertheless provide the benefit of runoff frequency reduction. Overall, climate impact was not significant except for areas with poorly infiltrating soils. Joint consideration of social, planning, climate and water management aspects potentially allows more efficient policymaking, as an array of system configurations can be tested against different multi-faceted scenarios. Such models can help facilitate better participatory planning and policymaking.     

Urban Household Water Demand in Beijing by 2020: An Agent-Based Model

Beijing is faced with severe water scarcity due to rapid socio-economic development and population expansion, and a guideline for water regulation has been released to control the volume of national water use. To cope with water shortage and meet regulation goal, it has great significance to study the variations of water demand. In this paper, an agent-based model named HWDP is developed for the prediction of urban household water demand in Beijing. The model involves stochastic behaviors and feedbacks caused by two agent roles which are government agent and household agent. The government agent adopts economic and propagandist means to make household agent optimize its water consumption. Additionally, the consumption is also affected by the basic water demand deduced from extended linear expenditure system. The results indicate that the total water demand of urban households in Beijing will increase to 317.5 million cubic meters by 2020, while the water price keeps growing at a low level. However, it would drop to 294.9 million cubic meters with high growth of water price and low increment in per capita disposable income. Finally, some policy recommendations on water regulation are made.     

鹤岗市区水资源开发利用状况及潜力分析

在对鹤岗市区现状用水及近10 a用水情况调查分析基础上,对该区水资源开发利用状况、开发利用程度、潜力进行分析计算,并提出水资源开发利用存在的问题。     

Alternative Water Resources for Rural Residential Development in Western Australia

Rainwater collected from residential roofs and greywater generated from domestic uses except toilets are viewed as possible substitutes for high grade water sources which supply nonpotable indoor uses and irrigation in Australia. This paper searches for alternatives by adopting roofwater and greywater in residential envelope as per Australian water standards. A water balance model Aquacycle was applied to determine storage capacities and to evaluate the percentage reduction in water supplying, stormwater run-off and wastewater disposal, as well as volume of rainwater use and greywater reuse. This study provides the results of greywater recycling, which contributes to the greater saving of mains water supply than rainwater use, and which reduces more than half of the wastewater to receiving waters in the rural township of Cranbrook, Western Australia. The results of this study provide greywater usage (maximum reduction 32.5%) more significantly reduces scheme water supply than rainwater harvesting (maximum reduction 25.1%). Use of greywater on individual residential lots has the dramatic effect for drainage system by reduction approximately 54.1% or 88.1 m³/lot/year. The results of rainwater use analysis show explicitly that rainwater tanks are much more effective in intercepting roof runoff, with the maximum stormwater reduction 48.1% or 68.3 m³/lot/year. This research endeavours to offer a typical paradigm for an integrated water system in the rural residential sectors.     

A Compromise Programming Model to Integrated Urban Water Management

Integrated urban water management is an important and critical matter in every city and country. Many objectives and criteria such as satisfaction of the urban water consumers, the national benefits and social hazards must be considered in the integrated urban water management. So the integrated urban water management can be considered as a multi-objective problem. In this paper, a mathematical model which uses the compromise programming model is presented to optimize this multi-objective problem. Three famous objectives involving water distribution cost, leakage water and social satisfaction level are considered. To evaluate the performance and efficiency of the proposed model, Hamedan potable water network is chosen as a case study. Results show that the proposed model is capable to present effective solutions for the considered problem. So the proposed mathematical model can be used as an efficient tool for the integrated urban water management in every urban area.     

Modeling of Drinking Water Distribution Networks Using Stochastic Demand

Residential water demand is one of the most difficult parameters to determine when modeling drinking water distribution networks. It has been proven to be a stochastic process that can be characterized as a series of rectangular pulses with a set intensity, duration and frequency. These parameters can be determined using stochastic models such as the Neyman-Scott Rectangular Pulse (NSRP) model. The NSRP model is based on the solution of a non-linear optimization problem. This solution involves theoretical moments that represent the synthetic demand series (equiprobable) and the observed moments (field measurements) that statistically establish the measured demand series. The NSRP model has been applied for residential demand, and the results have been published. However, this model has not been validated for a real distribution network or compared with traditional methods. The present study compared the results of synthetic stochastic demand series, which were calculated using the NSRP model, applied to the determination of pressures, flow rates and leaks; to the results obtained using traditional simulation methods, which use the curve of hourly variation in demand, and to actual pressure and flow rate measurements. The Humaya sector of Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico, was used as the study area.     

基于灰色模型的农村生活用水影响因子分析

我国农村人口多,生活用水总量大,农村用水在时间和空间上存在显著的差异和复杂性。对我国农村居民生活用水的特征和规律进行研究,是对农村用水和污水治理进行科学规划与管理的重要基础。基于全国农村居民用水抽样调查,将影响农村居民生活用水的因素分为家庭状况、经济水平、基础设施、生活习惯等4大类、8个具体指标,利用灰色系统理论与方法,对农村居民生活用水与影响因素进行了灰关联分析。结果表明：人均住房面积、家庭人均收入和家庭洗浴习惯是影响农村居民生活用水量的3个最主要的因子,在制定农村水资源和用水、污水治理规划时,应该结合区域发展情景,充分考虑和科学预测这些因素对农村用水和排水的影响;同时,也可以看出,推行居住地节水工程、加大加强节水意识宣传、培养优良节水习惯和改进农村用水基础设施对提高农村生活用水效率、缓解水资源矛盾具有重要意义。     

城市和雨水利用

城市化仍将是我国21世纪上半叶经济的发展的主要特征之一。城市化对市区的水资源将产生很大的影响，城市生态环境用水将是城市用水的重要组成部分，水资源匮缺和水环境恶化已城市化进程和社会进步的因素，雨水利用将是我国城市化进程中缓解城市水危机，改善城市水环境的有效措施。     

Water Pricing Under Joint Benefits

Abstract

A cubic functional form of an econometric model for residential water demand estimation is used in order to accommodate different price elasticities for different levels of water demand. Precise estimates of these different price elasticities offer a useful tool to water authorities for urban water demand management through price-based policies. Panel estimation methods (fixed and random effects) are employed to estimate model parameters. The results show that a cubic form of the demand equation can provide appropriate estimates of price elasticities for different “consumption groups” of residential customers. In addition, the effect of public awareness and information on water conservation is also evaluated after controlling other parameters affecting demand for water. Thus, another implication of this study is that well-informed consumers, aware of issues of water conservation and of techniques for water efficient use, may be more inclined to reduce their water consumption.     

Water Management for a Megacity: National Capital Territory of Delhi

Urban and regional demand for freshwater in National Capital Territory of Delhi has grown significantly over the last few decades. The National Capital Territory, Delhi is one of the most rapidly growing urban centers of the world, with a population of about 15 million people, a high rate of immigration and numerous illegal settlements. In order to meet the increasing water demand, the government is focused almost exclusively on supply management and engineering solutions, which have resulted in investments of hundreds of millions of Rupees. Environmental, economic and social policies associated with water management are largely inadequate and insufficient, which is resulting in increasing deterioration in the environment, health and socio-economic conditions of a population living in one of the largest urban agglomerations of the world. Surprisingly, however, no long-term strategies on demand-management, reuse, conservation, and improved water-management practices have been developed so far. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the urban water use with a view to enhance the understanding of the factors influencing urban water demand for residential, commercial and industrial sectors in National Capital Territory of Delhi. The analysis indicates an urgent need to radically improve the current water supply and wastewater management practices to become sustainable. Other measures such as public education and information/awareness will be necessary to achieve desired rationalization in water consumption, especially in the residential and commercial sectors.     

浅谈城市水利的发展历程及未来趋势

城市水利是指与城市正常运作密切相关的一系列水事活动，而城市自古以来通常是一个国家和地区政治、经济、文化的中心，因此城市水利在人类社会发展过程中扮演着重要的角色。在人类文明日益发展的今天，以时间的顺序对古代城市水利进行回顾、对现代城市水利进行剖析、对未来城市水利进行展望，其意义在于：古代城市水利就像一面镜子，对它进行总结可以为现在和未来的工作提供借鉴和参考；未来城市水利是在现代城市水利的基础上对于未来发展趋势的一种展望，是现代城市水利工作的努力方向；当前的工作是在吸收古代城市水利有益经验的基础上，积极探索当前条件下水利工作的科学内涵，为城市水利迈向未来、满足更高层次的社会发展需要做好准备。     

Urban Water Conservation Evaluation Based on Multi-grade Uncertain Comprehensive Evaluation Method

Water is not only the resource of life but also the important resource for a nation survival and development. Nowadays, the water crisis has become one of the most essential factors to restrict urban development. In this case, taking reasonable and effective method for comprehensive evaluation of urban water conservation level is helpful for promoting the construction of water-saving city. The main contribution of this paper is providing a new evaluation method for urban water saving. First, an urban water-saving evaluation index system is built. And the index system takes six water-saving standards including comprehensive water saving, domestic water saving, ecological water saving, industrial water saving, agricultural water saving and social economy as criteria. Then, the water-saving assessment model is proposed based on the Multi-grade Uncertain Comprehensive Evaluation (MUCE) Method. In this method, the important degree and the corresponding remark of each evaluation index are both considered to be uncertain variables due to the human uncertainty. The weights as well as the final evaluation result are obtained according to their uncertainty distributions and the votes of experts. At last, the comprehensive evaluation for water-saving level of Handan City located in North China is studied.     

珠江三角洲城市用水量特征研究

分析珠江三角洲7大城市近10 a的用水变化情况,及各城市用水结构,探索各城市用水特点。分析表明,经济社会的发展需求与水资源紧张的矛盾日益突出。在最严格水资源管理制度总量控制红线的督促下,各行业须严格管理、进一步节水才能满足社会经济发展用水需求。建设海绵城市体系,提高雨水的综合利用效率,有助于缓解城市雨洪风险,改善水生态安全,也是城市水资源开源节流的切实可行的办法,为城市用水提供了新型水源。     

"Triple-bottom-line" assessment of urban stormwater projects.

New guidelines have been developed and trialled in Australia to assist urban stormwater managers to assess options for projects that aim to improve urban waterway health. These guidelines help users to examine the financial, ecological and social dimensions of projects (i.e., the so-called "triple-bottom-line"). Features of the assessment process described in the guidelines include use of multi criteria analysis, input from technical experts as well as non-technical stakeholders, and provision of three alternative levels of assessment to suit stormwater managers with differing needs and resources. This paper firstly provides a background to the new guidelines and triple-bottom-line assessment. The assessment methodology promoted in the new guidelines is then briefly summarised. This methodology is compared and contrasted with European guidelines from the "SWARD" project that have been primarily developed for assessing the relative sustainability of options involving urban water supply and sewerage assets. Finally, the paper discusses how assessment methodologies that evaluate the financial, ecological and social dimensions of projects can, under some circumstances, be used to evaluate the relative progress of options for urban water management on a journey towards the widely pursued, but vaguely defined goal of "sustainable development".     

An economic input-output analysis for urban stormwater quality planning

A new approach using input-output techniques is proposed for the analysis of urban stormwater pollution caused by urban land development. The input-output model provides projections of sectoral outputs within an urban region. By defining land as an input to production, these output projections may be translated into projections of commercial and industrial land development. Furthermore, the closed version of the input-output model is used to project residential land development as a function of projected wage income. The pollutant generation in urban stormwater is related to the quantity of each category of land development by a pollutant coefficient matrix. Thus, the model can be used to predict the impact of various economic growth scenarios on pollution loadings in runoff water. This will help planners in assessing the environmental costs of various scenarios, and in preparing for remedial actions. A numerical example is provided to illustrate the applications of the model.     

苏州市吴中区河道水环境现状及治理对策浅析

苏州市吴中区地表水环境问题对苏州城市经济社会发展、太湖水质改善及人居生活质量有较大影响。沿河工业企业废污水大量排放是造成水环境质量下降的主要原因,必须加强水环境治理,建立节水减排机制,统筹经济社会、城市发展、工业企业、人居环境等建设规划;必须保护修复水生态水环境,加强河道排污管理,工业退城进区等有效措施。应用近年来吴中区河道水质监测资料,分析评价水环境恶化原因,提出治理对策与措施,以修复水生态,改善水环境。     

Multi-criteria Decision Making for Integrated Urban Water Management

The city of Zahedan, in South-eastern Iran, has high population growth, limited local freshwater resources and inadequate water distribution system resulting in water supply failures in recent years. This paper will investigate integration of several demand management measures such as leakage detection on water distribution network, water metering and low volume water fixtures as well as the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources of this city. For integration of water management criteria, compromise programming will be used as a multi-objective decision making method. The criteria include minimizing the cost, maximizing water supply and minimizing the social hazards due to the water supply operations. This model will derive optimum long-term plans for implementation of water resources. The results will show that demand management can delay a water transfer project for Zahedan city up to 10 years. Compromise programming is as an efficient tool for integrated water resources management in urban areas and the method is capable to being used by decision-makers in other cases.     

福建省城市水资源承载力综合评价研究

从水资源系统、社会经济系统和生态环境系统3个方面着手,构建福建省城市水资源承载力评价指标体系,并利用模糊综合评价模型对福建省城市水资源承载力进行综合评价。结果表明:福建省城市水资源开发利用已具有相当规模,城市水资源的供给需求是有一定保障的,城市水资源仍具有一定的开发利用潜力;分区城市中,厦门市与漳州市城市水资源状况较为紧张,厦门市未来城市水资源形式不容乐观。研究结果可为福建省城市水资源管理提供参考。