The effects of intertemporal demand dependencies on optimal electrical energy pricing: An extension

The principal issue addressed in this paper deals with the price profile for a regulated public utility when demand and supply vary spatially and temporally and when demands are temporally interdependent. No simple cost based solution proves possible. Price is determined as a weighted average of marginal operating costs in all periods, capital costs in all periods, and delivery costs.The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the policies of the Department of Energy or the views of other Department of Energy staff members.     

An economic justification for rural afforestation: The case of Ethiopia

It has proven difficult to quantify the economic benefits of large-scale rural afforestation and to establish the priority for public sector investment in traditional rural energy supply vis-a-vis investment in the supply of modern fuels (electricity, petroleum) to the urban industrial market. This paper outlines, in simple terms, the biological links between deforestation and agricultural production at the subsistence level and quantifies the economic benefits of increased food production obtained by replacing animal dung as a fuel with firewood from rural forestry programs.This paper was originally issued as World Bank Energy Department Paper No. 16, in August 1984. The views presented are those of the authors and are not necessarily endorsed by the World Bank.     

发展CNG汽车 拓展天然气市场

论述了上海地区车用CNG的市场与发展前景。对上海车用CNG的发展作了较系统的全面分析、比较;并参照其它国家发布的能源燃料价格,进行了上海主要能源价格的比较;同时还对现已投入运行的加气站作了详细的运行成本分析。由此推论上海发展车用CNG,1)可促进经济的可持续发展:2)有利于燃料能源结构的调整、天然气供需平衡和能源的合理利用:3)将带动相关产业的发展:4)还需政府的支持协调及政策上的扶持。     

Optimal pricing of public utility service when consumers and producers are spatially diffuse

The demand for public utility services varies temporally as well as spatially. The analysis of the problem of meeting these spatial and temporal variations in system load with optimum plant capacity within the framework of a price determination structure is the objective of this paper. By relying on a mathematical programming model with the objective of maximizing social welfare, the general principles of optimal pricing are derived. No simple cost-based solution proves possible. Price is not set equal to marginal operating cost. Rather the price changes according to the cost and demand conditions.The author is an economist with the federal energy administration. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the policies of the federal energy administration or the views of other federal energy administration staff members.     

Energy efficiency in the Chinese provinces: a fixed effects stochastic frontier spatial Durbin error panel analysis

Energy efficiency improvement has been a key objective of China’s long-term energy policy. In this paper, we derive single-factor technical energy efficiency (abbreviated as energy efficiency) in China from multi-factor efficiency estimated by means of a translog production function and a stochastic frontier model on the basis of panel data on 29 Chinese provinces over the period 2003–2011. We find that average energy efficiency has been increasing over the research period and that the provinces with the highest energy efficiency are at the east coast and the ones with the lowest in the west, with an intermediate corridor in between. In the analysis of the determinants of energy efficiency by means of a spatial Durbin error model both factors in the own province and in first-order neighboring provinces are considered. Per capita income in the own province has a positive effect. Furthermore, foreign direct investment and population density in the own province and in neighboring provinces have positive effects, whereas the share of state-owned enterprises in Gross Provincial Product in the own province and in neighboring provinces has negative effects. From the analysis it follows that inflow of foreign direct investment and reform of state-owned enterprises are important policy handles.     

America's high‐level nuclear waste repository: a case study of environmental science and public policy

The disposal of high‐level commercial nuclear wastes, the so‐called spent fuel, is one of the most politically and ethically complex environmental issues. A series of actions taken over past decades has resulted in plans to dispose of spent fuels in geologic repositories. This decision has ignited numerous controversies, especially concerning where the repositories should be located. This siting controversy has been “settled” for the time being by a federal law that designates Yucca Mountain in southern Nevada as the preferred location. However, the decision: (a) is inconsistent with the National Environmental Act as a comprehensive policy act, (b) does not reflect full consideration of value‐laden public policy issues, and (c) adds to credibility problems confronting the US Department of Energy and therefore contributes to controversies surrounding the agency's decisions. Aspects of how this decision came about and how it is being implemented provide an interesting case study of how our society is presently dealing with scientifically, politically, and ethically complex technological problems.     

A critical review of Korea's long-term contract for renewable energy auctions: The relationship between the import price of liquefied natural gas and system marginal price

The aim of Korea's Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) and newly adopted auction system with a long-term fixed-price renewable contract was to support renewable energy providers in hedging electricity and Renewable Energy Certificate (REC) price risks. This study found a long-run positive relationship between the import price of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and System Marginal Price (SMP) in Korea, demonstrating that the fluctuations in global fuel prices are likely to increase uncertainties in renewable investments. The fixed-price contract, which cannot be revised once determined, encourages renewable energy providers' speculative decision-making, and the uncertainty caused by the contract system may discourage investment decision-making.     

Poverty and environmental impacts of electricity price reforms in Montenegro

The creation of the Energy Community of South Eastern Europe in 2005 committed countries in South Eastern Europe to liberalize their energy markets in accordance to EU regulations. The Government of Montenegro is thus in the process of reforming its energy sector, which includes an electricity tariff reform. This paper analyzes the environmental and social impacts of an increase in residential electricity tariffs contemplated – which is expected to range anywhere from 40 to over 100% increase. As this analysis shows, such a significant price rise will impose a heavy burden on the poor households and it may adversely affect the environment. In an ex ante investigation of the welfare impact of this price increase on households in Montenegro, we show that the anticipated price increase will result in a very significant increase in households' energy expenditures. A simulation of alternative policy measures analyzes the impact of different tariff levels and structures, focusing on the poor and vulnerable households. Higher electricity prices could also significantly increase the proportion of households using fuelwood for space heating. Thus the level of fuelwood consumption should be carefully monitored under the electricity tariff reforms and the Government of Montenegro should combine the tariff reforms with a carefully evaluated set of policy measures to mitigate the effect of the electricity price increase on the poor.     

Sustainable urban planning for a successful energy transition on Reunion Island: From policy intentions to practical achievement

Numerous studies have investigated how small vulnerable territories are adapting to climate change, particularly non-interconnected islands with focus on Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and self-sufficiency. A key to success is an energy plan with appropriate policy tools. This paper first presents a discussion on barriers to RES deployment. Then, we present the energy situation and the legislative energy framework in Reunion Island. Are the legislative and policy frameworks sufficient to achieve the energy transition? This paper proposes an original view discussing the potential of a territory and available tools to develop RES. Energy transition is also view as an opportunity.     

Shocking the Suburbs: Urban Location,Homeownership and Oil Vulnerability in the Australian City

Energy security is receiving increasing attention from governments and scholars at the global and national scale. Petroleum security and rising fuel prices are a challenge for cities whose housing systems are highly dependent on automobile transport. This study assesses transport and socio-tenurial patterns within Australian cities to identify how the combined present and future effects of rising fuel costs, mortgage interest rates and general inflation will be spatially distributed. Using an ‘oil vulnerability’ assessment methodology based on Australian Census data, the study reveals broad-scale mortgage and oil vulnerability across the outer suburbs of Australian cities. The paper concludes with some observations about spatially equitable policy responses to ameliorate the housing and urban impacts of rising petroleum costs.     

Building codes vs. the existing housing stock‐some guidelines for energy conservation policy

Energy conservation in the housing sector has become a major policy issue since the first oil crisis in 1973–74. When mandatory building codes are used to improve the energy‐efficiency of new buildings, a high growth of construction will create a strong trend towards lower consumption per dwelling. But construction also adds new buildings to the housing stock, which will mean a higher total energy consumption, even if the marginal consumption is falling. These considerations lead to the conclusion that operating with codes is uniquely a long‐term policy in an energy conservation sense. To be able to gain short‐term conservation effects the policy measures should be directed towards existing buildings. This relation of time is not always clearly understood in the policy formulations that have been studied.     

Coal,oil, or clean energy: Which contributes most to the low energy efficiency in China?

The lack of energy efficiency in China is always of interest. This paper builds a total-factor energy efficiency framework which contains coal energy, oil energy, and clean energy, which emits fewer pollutants into the atmosphere when used. We study the “China Statistical Yearbook” and the “China Energy Statistical Yearbook” to identify which type of energy contributes most to low energy efficiency in China. Our conclusion is that the total-factor energy efficiency (TFEE) in China has been at a relatively low level without any significant improvement from 1998 to 2010. The efficiencies of coal and oil energy have improved moderately, while there is no obvious improvement in the efficiency of clean energy. Despite the moderately improved efficiency of coal energy, its relatively low level contributes most to the overall energy inefficiency because it is the main fuel used in China. Further, the lack of improvements in the efficiency of clean energy makes it another area of policy interest.     

European Union emissions trading scheme impact on the Spanish electricity price during phase II and phase III implementation

The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is a cornerstone of the European Union's policy to combat climate change and its key tool for reducing industrial greenhouse gas emissions cost-effectively. The purpose of the present work is to evaluate the influence of CO₂ opportunity cost on the Spanish wholesale electricity price. Our sample includes all Phase II of the EU ETS and the first year of Phase III implementation, from January 2008 to December 2013. A vector error correction model (VECM) is applied to estimate not only long-run equilibrium relations, but also short-run interactions between the electricity price and the fuel (natural gas and coal) and carbon prices. The four commodities prices are modeled as joint endogenous variables with air temperature and renewable energy as exogenous variables. We found a long-run relationship (cointegration) between electricity price, carbon price, and fuel prices. By estimating the dynamic pass-through of carbon price into electricity price for different periods of our sample, it is possible to observe the weakening of the link between carbon and electricity prices as a result from the collapse on CO₂ prices, therefore compromising the efficacy of the system to reach proposed environmental goals. This conclusion is in line with the need to shape new policies within the framework of the EU ETS that prevent excessive low prices for carbon over extended periods of time.     

Land use development patterns along an interstate highway corridor: An exploratory case analysis

The existence of a corridor for consumer household shopping travel behavior relative to the Interstate System has previously been verified. However, whether a corridor develops, as measured in terms of investment response and commercial development, following Interstate construction is unknown. Thus, the objective of this research was to determine the investment response, if any, following the construction of an Interstate highway in one southeastern state. The basis for the research was personal interviews with all owners or managers of businesses established along a 100 mile section of Interstate highway. Based on the research, it seems questionable whether a development corridor based on investment response could be attributed to the Interstate. This article focuses on reasons for this assertion. The development which occurred was nodally related only to the interchanges along the System and to meetinthneeds of motorist travelers on the System.This research was sponsored by the State of Alabama Highway Department in connection with the U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. The article reflects the views of the author, who is responsible for the accuracy of the data presented therein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the State of Alabama Highway Department or the Federal Highway Administration.     

热泵技术及其在供暖中应用的经济效益分析

阐述了热泵技术的基本原理,探讨了热泵技术在建筑采暖中的应用方法、特点及存在的主要问题,结合近年来燃料、电能价格变化带来的能源形势变化,具体分析了热泵供暖技术的经济效益,指明了热泵技术在我国建筑采暖中的广阔应用前景。     

Effect of Road Surface,Vehicle, and Device Characteristics on Energy Harvesting from Bridge–Vehicle Interactions

Energy harvesting to power sensors for structural health monitoring (SHM) has received huge attention worldwide. A number of practical aspects affecting energy harvesting and the possibility of health monitoring directly from energy harvesters is investigated here. The key idea is the amount of power received from a damaged and an undamaged structure varying and the signature of such variation can be used for SHM. For this study, a damaged bridge and an undamaged bridge are considered with harvesters located at different positions and the power harvested is accessed numerically to determine how energy harvesting can act as a damage detector and monitor. Bridge–vehicle interaction is exploited to harvest energy. For a damaged bridge, a bilinear breathing crack is considered. Variable surface roughness according to ISO 8606:1995(E) is considered such that the real values can be considered in the simulation. The possibility of a drive‐by type health monitoring using energy harvesting is highlighted and the effects of road surface on such monitoring are identified. The sensitivity of the harvester health monitoring to locations and extents of crack damage are reported. This study investigates the effects of multiple harvesters and the effects of vehicular parameters on the harvested power. Continuous harvesting over a length of the bridge is considered semianalytically. A comparison among the numerical simulations, detailed finite element analysis, and experimental results emphasizes the feasibility of the proposed method.     

A micro-DC power distribution system for a residential application energized by photovoltaic-wind/fuel cell hybrid energy systems

Renewable energy systems are of importance as being modular, nature-friendly and domestic. Among renewable energy systems, a great deal of research has been conducted especially on photovoltaic effect, wind energy and fuel cell in the recent years. In this study, a residential application of photovoltaic-wind/fuel cell hybrid energy system established at the Clean Energy House in Denizli, Turkey, has been investigated. The study is based on the distribution and consumption of Direct Current (DC) electrical energy which is produced by the hybrid system.     

A case study in energy efficiency: Sutton coldfield deanery first and middle schools

Two linked schools at Walmley in Birmingham are the subject of a Department of Energy “Energy Conservation Demonstration Project”. Designed for the Birmingham Diocesan Education Council to provide for approximately 500 children (ages 5–13) the schools are intended to be energy efficient within the constraints of traditional techniques and cost limits.The object of the case study is to demonstrate the viability of various energy conservation measures through the monitoring of the design, construction, use, and performance of the schools.Design work started in 1977, and partial occupancy in 1980 has been followed by full occupancy in September, 1981. This paper presents, in an anecdotal format, some of the observations by the monitoring team of the design, construction, and initial occupancy periods.     

Energy and carbon dioxide implications of building construction

This paper investigates the amount of energy required to construct buildings, and the resulting carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere from the fossil fuel components of that energy. Energy requirements and carbon dioxide emissions are compared for typical commercial, industrial and residential buildings, using New Zealand as an example. A modest change from concrete and steel to more wood construction could lead to a substantial reduction in energy requirements and carbon dioxide emissions, but the sustainability of such a change has significant forestry implications.     

Energy use in Minnesota State-owned facilities

This paper describes and analyzes the contents of a large data base containing information on monthly energy use at state-owned facilities in Minnesota. The data base, managed by the State Department of Administration, includes information on 42 community colleges, state universities, hospitals, prisons, and the St. Paul Capitol Complex. The data span a seven year period (1972 – 1978) and include about 3,500 observations.Several data base management issues are discussed. These include errors and their correction, development of simple and consistent definitions for key terms, and collection of information on key determinants of energy use at these facilities.Total annual energy use at these 42 institutions averaged 245 kBtu/ft² (2.78 GJ/m²) for 1978. Fossil fuels accounted for 56% of this total; electricity accounted for the remainder. Energy use at the Capitol Complex, hospitals and prisons was higher than average.Regression equations were developed to predict monthly heating fuel use and total energy use. These equations show that more than 60% of the variation in energy use per unit floorspace can be explained by a few variables: heating degree days; electricity and fossil fuel prices; number of buildings; number of boilers; facility age; and whether or not the facility is all electric.