Zero-<Emphasis Type="Italic">trans</Emphasis> shortening using palm stearin and rice bran oil

Several pilot-scale trials reported in this paper, using palm stearin-rice bran oil (PS-RBO) blends, obviously did not contain trans FA (TFA), whereas the commercial products were found to contain 18–27% TFA. The effects of processing conditions such as rate of agitation, crystallization temperature, and composition of the blends on the crystal structure of shortenings were studied. The products were evaluated for their physicochemical characteristics using DSC, X-ray diffraction (XRD), HPLC, and FTIR techniques. The formulation containing 50% PS and 50% RBO showed melting and cooling characteristics similar to those of hydrogenated commercial “vanaspati” samples. Analysis of the FA composition revealed that the formulated shortenings contained 15–19% C_18∶2 PUFA. Tocopherol and tocotrienol contents of the experimental shortenings were in the range of 850–1000 ppm with oryzanol content up to 0.6%. XRD studies demonstrated that the crystal form in the shortenings was predominantly the most stable β′ form, and there was less of the undesirable β form.     

Zero‐Trans Cake Shortening: Formulation and Characterization of Physicochemical,Rheological, and Textural Properties

Cake shortening is an important ingredient that imparts taste and texture in the cake as the final product. Hydrogenated shortenings contain high amounts of trans fatty acids, which is considered a risk factor for obesity, cancers, and cardiovascular diseases. In this research, chemically interesterified blends of canola oil (CO) and palm stearin (PS) were recruited in order to formulate zero‐trans shortening, specifically for cake application. The optimization of shortening formulation was performed by Design‐Expert software, considering melting, congelation, textural, and rheological properties of cake shortening as responses. The formulated shortening in the weight ratio of 66.41:33.58 (PS:CO) (%, w/w) was analyzed and compared with two commercial cake shortenings in terms of fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition, slip melting point (SMP), solid fat content (SFC), and rheological and textural properties. The results showed that the formulated zero‐trans cake shortening with 0.2% trans, 47.2% saturated fatty acids, SMP of 40.9 °C, SFC of 10.51% at 37 °C, firmness of 1522.5 g, and linear viscoelastic range of 0.035% had the most acceptable criteria among cake‐shortening samples. The findings of this study offer insights into the relationship between shortening functionality and physicochemical properties and serve as a base for future studies on zero‐trans shortenings formulation.     

Physical Properties of <Emphasis Type="Italic">trans</Emphasis>-Free Bakery Shortening Produced by Lipase-Catalyzed Interesterification

Lipase-catalyzed interesterified solid fat was produced with fully hydrogenated soybean oil (FHSBO), and rapeseed oil (RSO) and palm stearin (PS) in a weight ratio of 15:20:65, 15:40:45 and 15:50:35. The interesterified fats contained palmitic (27.8–44.6%), stearic (15.6–16.2%), oleic (27.5–36.5%) and linoleic acids (8.0–13.5%). After interesterification of the blends, the physical properties of the products changed and showed lower melting points and solid fat contents, different melting and crystallization behaviors as well as the formation of more stable crystals. The produced interesterified fats (FHSBO:RSO:PS 15:20:65, 15:40:45 and 15:50:35 blends) contained desirable crystal polymorphism (β′ form) as determined by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy, a long plastic range with solid fat content of 51–63% at 10 °C to 4–12% at 40 °C, and melting points of 39 (15:50:35), 42 (15:50:45) and 45 °C (15:20:65). However, a reduction in tocopherols (α and γ) content and a reduced oxidative stability were observed in the interesterified fats. The physical properties of the interesterifed fats were influenced by the amount of PS, resulting in more hardness and higher solid fat contents for 15:20:65 than 15:40:45 and 15:50:35 blends. The present study suggested that the produced interesterified fats containing trans-free fatty acids could be used as alternatives to hydrogenated types of bakery shortenings.     

Physicochemical and Rheological Properties of Crystallized Blends Containing <Emphasis Type="Italic">trans</Emphasis>-free and Partially Hydrogenated Soybean Oil

Three vegetable oil blends, intended for formulation of high melting temperature confectionary coatings, were prepared by mixing different proportions of coconut oil, palm stearin, and either partially hydrogenated soybean oil (PH-SBO) or native soybean oil (i.e., trans-free SBO). The blends were crystallized under the same isothermal conditions and the crystallized systems evaluated by DSC, SFC, polarized light microscopy, and rheology under low [i.e., G′ and yield stress (σ*)] and high (i.e., creep and recovery profiles) stress forces. Overall, all trans-free blends showed lower SFC and heat of crystallization than the ones obtained with PH-SBO blends. These results showed that trans-fatty acids decrease the level of structural order of the crystals, and probably also the organization of the crystal network. As a result, most of the crystallized blends with PH-SBO showed lower σ* values and higher creep profiles (i.e., softer texture) than trans-free blends, particularly in systems crystallized at high supercooling and blends with saturated medium chain TAG. Nevertheless, at particular crystallization temperatures some trans-free formulations provided crystallized systems with rheological properties that would result in softer textures than the ones obtained with PH-SBO blends. Knowledge of the rheological properties under low and high stress forces is vital when comparing the functionality of crystallized TAG systems with and without TAG with trans-fatty acids.     

Changing the SFC Profile of Lauric Fat Blends Based on Melting Group Triacylglycerol Formulation

Lauric fat blends could be prepared from formulation of different melting triacylglycerol (TAG) group to obtain various desired SFC profiles as required by different fat rich products such as margarine and shortening. At the interval temperature from 0 to 20 °C, an increase ratio of body and heated (BH) melting TAG group in the fat blends imposed higher SFC values with steeper SFC slopes. Meanwhile, at the interval temperature from 20 to 40 °C, an increase ratio of heated (H) melting TAG group resulted higher SFC values with comparable SFC slopes. The use of Palm Stearin (PS) or Fully Hydrogenated Rapeseed Oil (FHRO) as the hard fat gave comparable SFC profiles but the fat blends with FHRO melted completely (SFC 0 %) at higher temperature (60 °C) while those of PS did not. In addition, the crystallization and melting behaviors of lauric fat blends as measured by DSC were influenced by different ratio of TAG distribution formulated at H15 (varied BH) and BH50 (varied H). Fat blends with PS also showed different crystal morphology compared to those with FHRO as measured by PLM.     

Physical properties of Pseudomonas and Rhizomucor miehei lipase-catalyzed transesterified blends of palm stearin:palm kernel olein

The physical properties of Pseudomonas and Rhizomucor miehei lipase-catalyzed transesterified blends of palm stearin:palm kernel olein (PS:PKO), ranging from 40% palm stearin to 80% palm stearin in 10% increments, were analyzed for their slip melting points (SMP), solid fat content (SFC), melting thermograms, and polymorphic forms. The Pseudomonas lipase caused a greater decrease in SMP (15°C) in the PS:PKO (40:60) blend than the R. miehei lipase (10.5°C). Generally, all transesterified blends had lower SMP than their unreacted blends. Pseudomonas lipase-catalyzed blends at 40:60 and 50:50 ratio also showed complete melting at 37°C and 40°C, respectively, whereas for the R. miehei lipase-catalyzed 40:60 blend, a residual SFC of 3.9% was observed at 40°C. Randomization of fatty acids by Pseudomonas lipase also led to a greater decrease in SFC than the rearrangement of fatty acids by R. miehei lipase. Differential scanning calorimetry results confirmed this observation. Pseudomonas lipase also successfully changed the polymorphic forms of the unreacted blends from a predominantly β form to that of an exclusively β′ form. Both β and β′ forms existed in the R. miehei lipase-catalyzed reaction blends, with β′ being the dominant form.     

Polymorphic stability of some shortenings as influenced by the fatty acid and glyceride composition of the solid phase

A number of North American vegetable and animal fat shortenings, which had been analyzed previously for their physical and textural characteristics, were analyzed also for their chemical composition. The fatty acid and triglyceride composition of the solids were calculated by analyzing the composition of the original product and the liquid phase, and by determination of the solid fat content (SFC) of the fat. The solids were also isolated by isopropanol (IP) separation, and the high melting glycerides (HMG) by acetone crystallization at 15°C. There was not much difference in total saturates andtrans content between vegetable and animal fat shortenings. Changing formulations from soy-palm to soy-cottonseed does not change the total saturates plustrans content. The solids of the vegetable shortenings in the β form contained about 20% of 16:0, those in the β′ form 30% or more. The animal fat shortenings were mainly in the β form, their solids contained 30% or more of 16:0. C54 triglyceride content of the solids of β vegetable shortenings (calculated and IP-separated) was >45%, that of all animal fats was <25%. Solids of animal fat shortenings contain high levels of C52. The C54 triglycerides are β-tending and should be kept low in vegetable shortening. In the HMG the C54 should not exceed 30%. This can only be achieved by incorporation of a β′ hard fat, preferably palm hard fat. Animal fat, especially lard, crystallizes in the β form because the palmitic acid in the glyceride molecule is located in the 2-position, whereas those of vegetable fats are in the 1- and 3-position.     

Physico-chemical properties and performance of high oleic and palm-based shortenings

Solid fat from fractionation of palm-based products was converted into cake shortening at different processing conditions. High oleic palm stearin with an oleic content of 48.2 % was obtained from fractionation of high oleic palm oil which was produced locally. Palm product was blended with different soft oils at pre-determined ratio and further fractionated to obtain the solid fractions. These fractions were then converted into cake shortenings named as high oleic, N1 and N2 blends. The physico-chemical properties of the experimental shortenings were compared with those of control shortenings in terms of fatty acid composition (FAC), iodine value (IV), slip melting point (SMP), solid fat content (SFC) and polymorphic forms. Unlike the imported commercial shortenings as reported by other studies and the control, experimental shortenings were trans-free. The SMP and SFC of experimental samples, except for the N2 sample, fell within the ranges of commercial and control shortenings. The IV was higher than those of domestic shortenings but lower when compared to imported and control shortenings. They were also observed to be beta tending even though a mixture of beta and beta' was observed in the samples after 3 months of storage. The shortenings were also used in the making of pound cake and sensory evaluation showed the good performance of high oleic sample as compared to the other shortenings.     

Comparison of lipase-transesterified blend with some commercial solid frying shortenings in Malaysia

A transesterified experimental solid frying shortening was prepared from a palm stearin/palm kernel olein blend at 1∶1 ratio (by weight) by using Rhizomucor miehei lipase at 60°C for 6 h. The fatty acid (FA) and triacylglycerol compositions, polymorphic forms, melting and cooling characteristics, slip melting point (SMP), and solid fat content (SFC) of the transesterified blend were then compared with five commercial solid frying shortenings (three domestic and two imported) found in Malaysia. All the domestic shortenings contained nonhydrogenated palm oil or palm olein and palm stearin as the hard stock, whereas the imported frying shortenings were formulated from soybean oil and cottonseed oil and contained high level of β′ crystals. Trans FA were also found in these samples. The lipase-transesterified blend was found to be more β′-tending than the domestic samples. The SMP of the transesterified blend (47.0°C) fell within the range of the domestic samples (37.8–49.7°C) but was higher than the imported ones (42.3–43.0°C). All samples exhibited similar differential scanning calorimetry cooling profiles, with a narrow peak at the higher temperatures and a broad peak at the lower temperatures, even though their heating thermograms were quite different. Imported samples had flatter SFC curves than both the experimental and domestic samples. The domestic samples were found to have better workability or plasticity at higher temperatures than the imported ones, probably because they were formulated for a tropical climate.     

Trans-free bakery shortenings from mango kernel and mahua fats by fractionation and blending

Bakery shortenings prepared by hydrogenation contain high levels of trans fatty acids, which are considered to be risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The shortenings prepared from maogo kernel and mahua fats have no trans fatty acids. Mahua fat was fractionated by dry fractionation to obtain a high-melting fraction (10% yield, Mh1). Mango fat was fractionated by two-stage solvent fractionation, separating about 15% high-melting fraction (Mk1) in the first stage, followed by 40% stearin (Mk2) in the second stage. The formulation containing 80% Mh1 and 20% of mango middle stearin fraction (Mk2) showed melting characteristics and onset and enthalpy of crystallization similar to those of commercial hydrogenated shortenings designed for cakes and biscuits. The formulation suitable for puff pastry shortening was prepared by blending 50% mango 1st stearin (Mk1) and 50% mahua fat with addition of 5–7% of fully hydrogenated vegetable oil. The formulations having melting characteristics similar to those of commercial cake and biscuit shortenings were also prepared by blending 40% mango fat and 60% mahua fat with 5–7% incorporation of fully hydrogenated peanut oil. However, these formulations showed delayed transition to the stable forms compared to those of commercial samples. Fatty acid composition revealed that commercial hydrogenated shortenings consisted of 18–29% trans oleic acid, whereas the formulations we prepared did not contain any trans acids. The iodine values of commercial samples were 57–58, whereas the value for the formulations prepared were 47–53. The consistency of the prepared samples as measured by cone penetrometer was slightly harder than commercial samples. These studies showed that it is possible to prepare bakery shortenings with no trans fatty acids by using mango and mahua fats and their fractions.     

Physical and textural characteristics of some North American shortenings

A number of North American vegetable and animal fat shortenings were evaluated for their melting, crystallization, textural and polymorphic crystal characteristics and solid fat content (SFC). The majority of the dropping points and crystallization temperatures of the fats ranged from 42 to 46°C and from 27 to 31°C, respectively. Softening points of the products were higher than the dropping points of their fats, especially for the vegetable shortenings. Differential scanning calorimetry melting curves of the products were different for the various products. The animal fat shortenings were mainly in theβ-polymorphic form, while vegetable shortenings containing palm oil were in theβ′ form. Textural evaluation was carried out on the products with the cone penetrometer, constant speed penetration and constant speed compression. Constant speed compression supplied a measure of brittleness and a degree of viscosity. Lard and shortenings containing high levels of palm oil were able to withstand large deformations without breakage. The effect of tempering temperature of the fat in the SFC determination was evaluated and the values obtained were compared with the SFC of the actual product. SFC of fat and product were determined by pulse nuclear magnetic resonance. Correlation of values within textural methods was significant (P<..01), but were not significant between texture and SFC of the fat, indicating that the nature of the crystal network also plays a role in texture.     

CLA‐Rich Soy Oil Shortening Production and Characterization

Conjugated linoleic acid‐rich soy oil (CLARSO) has been shown to have numerous health benefits, including anti‐obesity and anti‐carcinogenic properties. This oil was previously used to produce CLA‐rich margarine that showed physical characteristics similar to commercially available margarine. The objective of this study was to produce CLA‐rich shortening and analyze its physical properties relative to commercially available shortenings and soy oil control shortenings. The shortenings were prepared and their rheology, thermal behavior, and solid fat content (SFC) were determined and compared to the commercial samples. The CLA‐rich shortening samples showed similar rheological properties to the commercial samples and showed a better consistency (more solid‐like behavior) compared to the soy oil control samples. In addition, the CLA‐rich shortenings also have a higher SFC (% SFC) as well as higher latent heat of crystallization and melting than the soy oil controls indicating a comparatively higher crystalline fraction. Thus, CLARSO produced firmer shortenings than did conventional soy oil by interacting with the crystallizing stearin fraction and consequently increasing the crystalline mass fraction without significantly altering the microstructure kinetics of solid fat crystallization.     

Interesterification of tallow and sunflower oil

The objective of this study was to manufacture a shortening using chemical interesterification (IT) of tallow-sunflower oil blends to replace fish oil in the present formulation, which is now in short supply in Chile. The significant variables of the IT process were obtained by 2⁴⁻¹ fractional factorial design. The proportion of tallow (T) in the blend, catalyst concentration, and reaction temperature had a significant effect on the melting point (mp) (P≤0.05). IT of tallow and sunflower oil blends (90∶10 and 70∶30) diminished the mp, dropping point, and refractive index compared to tallow. However, a noninteresterified 90∶10 blend mp was not significantly different from tallow. IT produced a solid fat content (SFC) profile of IT90∶10 blend that was appropriate for use in shortenings for the baking industry. Blending and IT of the 90∶10 blend increased the melting profile of the tallow and the melting range from −40 to 60°C while the endotherms of the middle-melting triacylglycerols (TAG) decreased. The IT90∶10 blend hardnesswas 70% lower than tallow hardness, and the crystal network was composed of large spherulites in a network. IT resulted in an appropriate method to improve physical properties of tallow, whereas blending did not significantly modify it. The interesterification changed the SFC profile of IT90∶10, giving a more appropriate shortening for use in the baking industry.     

Physical properties of lipase‐catalyzed interesterification of palm stearin with canola oil blends

Interesterified blends of hard palm stearin (IV of 11) and canola oil (hPS/CO) in ratios of 20 : 80, 30 : 70, 40 : 60, 50 : 50, 60 : 40 and 70 : 30 were prepared using immobilized Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase (Lipozyme TL IM). Comparison of physical properties was carried out between non‐interesterified and enzymatically interesterified products by monitoring their slip melting point (SMP), solid fat content (SFC), melting thermogram and polymorphism behavior. The Lipozyme TL IM‐catalyzed interesterification significantly modified the physical properties of the hPS:CO blends. The results showed that all the interesterified blends had lower SMP and SFC than their unreacted blends. The SMP result showed that the interesterified blends of hPS/CO 40 : 60, 50 : 50 and 60 : 40 could be useful for stick margarine and shortening applications, respectively. From the SFC analysis, the interesterified blends of hPS/CO 40 : 60 have SFC curves similar to vanaspati. The interesterified blends of hPS/CO 50 : 50 and 60 : 40 have SFC curves similar to margarines, puff pastry margarine and shortening. Interesterification had replaced the higher‐ and lower‐melting triacylglycerols by the middle‐melting triacylglycerols, yielding mixtures of lower SMP and SFC, compared to the original palm stearin. X‐ray diffraction analysis indicated the appearance of β' crystals in all the interesterified hPS/CO blends from predominantly β‐type oils.     

Changes in triacylglycerol molecular species and thermal properties of blended and interesterified mixtures of coconut oil or palm oil with rice bran oil or sesame oil

Blended oils were prepared by mixing appropriate amounts of coconut oil (CNO) or palm oil (PO) with rice bran oil (RBO) or sesame oil (SESO) to get approximately equal proportions of saturated/monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acids in the oil. These blended oils were subjected to interesterification reactions using lipase to randomize the fatty acid distribution on the glycerol molecule. The fatty acid compositions of the modified oils were evaluated by gas chromatography while changes in triacylglycerol molecular species were followed by HPLC. The triacylglycerol molecular species of the blended oils reflected those present in the parent oil. Interesterification of the blended oils resulted in the exchange of fatty acids within and between the triacylglycerol molecules, resulting in alterations in the existing triacylglycerol molecules. Emergence of new triacylglycerol molecular species following interesterification was also observed. The thermal profiles of the native, blended and interesterified oils were determined by differential scanning calorimetry. Thermal behaviour, melting and crystallization properties of the modified oils showed significant changes reflecting the changes in the triacylglycerol molecules present in the oil. Therefore, interesterification of oils introduces significant changes in the physical properties of oils, even though the overall fatty acid composition of blended and interesterified oils remains the same.     

The influence of chemical interesterification on physicochemical properties of complex fat systems 1. Melting and crystallization

The effects of blending palm oil (PO) with soybean oil (SBO) and lard with canola oil, and subsequent chemical interesterification (CIE), on their melting and crystallization behavior were investigated. Lard underwent larger CIE-induced changes in triacylglycerol (TAG) composition than palm oil. Within 30 min to 1 h of CIE, changes in TAG profile appeared complete for both lard and PO. PO had a solid fat content (SFC) of ∼68% at 0°C, which diminished by ∼30% between 10 and 20°C. Dilution with SBO gradually lowered the initial SFC. CIE linearized the melting profile of all palm oil-soybean oil (POSBO) blends between 5 and 40°C. Lard SFC followed an entirely different trend. The melting behavior of lard and lard-canola oil (LCO) blends in the 0–40°C range was linear. CIE led to more abrupt melting for all LCO blends. Both systems displayed monotectic behavior. CIE increased the DP of POSBO blends with ≥80% PO in the blend and lowered that of blends with ≤70% PO. All CIE LCO blends had a slightly lower DP vis-à-vis their noninteresterified counterparts.     

Physical properties of shortenings with low‐trans fatty acids as affected by emulsifiers and storage conditions

The quality of shortenings, such as solid fat content (SFC) and texture, strongly depends on temperature fluctuations during storage and handling. The quality of a shortening might be affected not only by temperature fluctuations but also by its chemical composition and the presence of emulsifiers. The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of emulsifier addition and storage conditions on the texture, thermal behavior and SFC of low‐trans shortenings formulated with palm oil, palm kernel oil, and vegetable oils such as sunflower and soybean oils. Several conclusions can be drawn from this study: (a) The crystallization behavior of fat blends strongly depends on the type of emulsifier used and the chemical composition of the sample; (b) the addition of emulsifiers affects not only the type of crystals formed (fractionation) but also the amount of crystals obtained (enthalpy, SFC), inducing or delaying the crystallization process; (c) emulsifiers affect the texture of the crystalline structure formed by making it softer; (d) the storage conditions affect both the texture and the SFC of the materials. This study shows that samples that are highly super‐cooled during storage become harder while samples that are less super‐cooled become softer with storage conditions.     

Reduction of Graininess Formation in Beef Tallow-Based Plastic Fats by Chemical Interesterification of Beef Tallow and Canola Oil

To manufacture beef tallow (BT)-based shortening and margarine with a reduced tendency to developing sandiness, BT/canola oil (CaO) blend (80:20 w/w), selected from the BT and CaO blends mixed in different ratios from 60:40 to 85:15 with 5% increments, was subjected to chemical interesterification (CIE) with sodium methoxide as the catalyst. The interesterified products were compared with the starting mixture in terms of solid fat content (SFC), and contents of high-melting point 1,3-disaturated long-chain fatty acid 2-monounsaturated long-chain fatty acid triacylglycerols (SUS TAGs) including 1,3-distearoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol (StOSt), 1,3-dipalmitoy-2-oleoyl-glycerol (POP), and 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-3-stearoyl-glycerol (POSt). Under the selected conditions: 60 °C, 0.6% CH₃ONa, 90 min, the CIE product had a SFC profile that meets suggested bakery fat requirements, besides a content of SUS TAGs which is 22.14% lower than that of the non-interesterified blend. Also the fat produced had stable β′ polymorphs, crystal morphology, crystal sizes (<20 μm), and could resist temperature fluctuations. The CIE product obtained herein has an increased potential for manufacturing bakery shortenings and margarines with reduced graininess formation, increasing the possibilities for the commercial use of BT and CaO.     

Preparation of plastic fats with zero <Emphasis Type="Italic">trans</Emphasis> FA from palm oil

A series of plastic fats containing no trans FA and having varying melting or plastic ranges, suitable for use in bakery, margarines, and for cooking purposes as vanaspati, were prepared from palm oil. The process of fractionating palm oil under different conditions by dry and solvent fractionation processes produced stearins of different yields. Melting characteristics of stearin fractions varied depending on the yield and the process. The lower-yield stearins were harder and had a wider plastic range than those of higher yields. The fractions with yields of about 35% had melting profiles similar to those of commercial vanaspati. The plastic range of palm stearins was further improved by blending them with corresponding oleins and with other vegetable oils. The plasticity or solid fat content varied depending on the proportion of stearin. Blends with higher proportions of stearins were harder than those with lower proportions. the melting profiles of some blends, especially those containing 40–60% stearin of about 25% yield and 40–60% corresponding oleins or mahua or rice bran oils, were similar to those of commercial vanaspati and bakery shortenings. These formulations did not contain any trans FA, unlike those of commercial hydrogenated fats. Thus, by fractionation and blending, plastic fats with no trans acids could be prepared for different purposes to replace hydrogenated fats, and palm oil could be utilized to the maximum extent.     

Physical and textural characteristics of hydrogenated low-erucic acid rapeseed oil and low-erucic acid rapeseed oil blends

Low-erucic acid rapeseed oil (LERO) and hydrogenated low-erucic acid rapeseed oil (HLERO) were blended in binary systems. The blends were then studied for their physical properties such as solid fat content, melting curves by DSC, textural properties, and polymorphism. Phase behavior diagrams were constructed from the DSC and X-ray results, and isosolid diagrams were constructed from the NMR results. The mixture of HLERO and LERO displayed a monotectic behavior for all the storage time at 15°C. The aim of this work was to evaluate physical characteristics of binary blends of HLERO and nonydrogenated LERO in order to use only LERO and hardened LERO in bakery shortenings. The mixture of 60% HLERO and 40% LERO is suitable to use as a plastic shortening. This blend is β tending upon storage at 15°C. It could be used in pie crust applications.