Rewarding pinball wizardry: Effects of evaluation and cue value on intrinsic interest.

Examined the effects of rewards for pinball competence on subsequent interest in the game in 3 studies with 219 Ss in which 3 components of performance-contingent reward structures—an evaluative contingency established before playing, performance feedback, and the receipt of a reward—were identified. The symbolic cue value of the reward may affect interest independently of evaluation and competence feedback. To isolate its effect, groups receiving a performance-contingent reward were compared with groups that experienced the same evaluative contingency and feedback and with feedback-only controls (Studies 1 and 3). Results show that evaluation reduced intrinsic motivation, compared with controls, whereas reward enhanced intrinsic motivation relative to evaluation. In Study 2, groups receiving rewards for attaining competence but differing in whether the evaluation was anticipated before playing were compared. Results indicate that unexpected performance-contingent rewards enhanced interest, compared with expected rewards. Findings suggest that the 3 reward properties have separate effects on intrinsic motivation. Anticipation of evaluation was responsible for negative reward effects, whereas competence feedback and due value had independent positive effects (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-task generalization of intrinsic motivation effects.

Examined whether prior autonomy-supporting (AS) and externally controlling (EC) experiences can affect reactions to new activities (NAs). In Exp 1, 152 university students received self-determining (i.e., AS) pretreatment experience, and EC pretreatment experience, or no pretreatment experience with an initial activity and then received an expected task-contingent reward or an unexpected reward after engaging in an NA. In Exp 2, 53 university students received high competency feedback (i.e., AS) or average competency feedback following performance of an initial activity, and then received an expected or unexpected reward after engaging in an NA. Initial AS experiences produced relatively lower intrinsic motivation to engage in the NAs. Ss' experiences with prior activities interacted with subsequent reward variations to affect their reactions to NAs. Prior AS experienced averted negative motivation effects of expected rewards on NAs, whereas prior EC experienced suppressed subsequent intrinsic motivation. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive evaluation theory.

Reviews recent experimental literature on reward contingency effects on intrinsic motivation. Agreement emerges among investigators for most contingency effects when experimental procedures use standard terminology. However, some discrepancies are apparent, especially with respect to performance-contingent effects that both increased and decreased intrinsic motivation relative to task-contingent effects. These discrepancies are discussed in terms of cognitive evaluation theory (E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan, 1980). An integration of the various effects was tested using 96 college students working on a puzzle-solving activity for whom various reward conditions were in effect. Results of the study and review suggest that it is the relative salience of controlling and informational aspects of rewards that mediate the contingency effects. The importance of the interpersonal context of reward administration for the facilitation or undermining of intrinsic motivation is underscored. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overjustification and children's intrinsic motivation: Comparative effects of four rewards.

Studied the relative overjustifying effects of various types of rewards on 30 boys' and 30 girls' (mean ages 72.6 and 72.4 mo, respectively) intrinsic motivation. Four reward procedures were examined—tangible, verbal, symbolic, and self-administered symbolic (self) rewards. Ss attempted to solve mazes under 1 of 5 training conditions and were then given a free-play period in which to engage in further maze play or try other materials. Ss receiving tangible rewards and those who self-administered symbolic rewards (self-reward) showed less subsequent intrinsic motivation than Ss in the control, verbal reward, and symbolic reward conditions. Moreover, internal locus-of-control expectancies (Stanford Preschool Internal–External Scale) were inversely related to intrinsic motivation for Ss in the self-reward condition. Results are discussed from 2 perspectives—the intrinsic–extrinsic reward continuum and E. L. Deci's (1975) distinction between the controlling (detrimental) and informational (competence- and motivation-enhancing) aspects of rewards. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement-Based Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation: A Test of Cognitive Mediators.

This study assessed how rewards impacted intrinsic motivation when students were rewarded for achievement while learning an activity, for performing at a specific level on a test, or for both. Undergraduate university students engaged in a problem-solving activity. The design was a 2 × 2 factorial with 2 levels of reward in a learning phase (reward for achievement, no reward) and 2 levels of reward in a test phase (reward for achievement, no reward). Intrinsic motivation was measured as time spent on the experimental task and ratings of task interest during a free-choice period. A major finding was that achievement-based rewards during learning or testing increased participants' intrinsic motivation. A path analysis indicated that 2 processes (perceived competence and interest-internal attribution) mediated the positive effects of achievement-based rewards in learning and testing on intrinsic motivation. Findings are discussed in terms of the cognitive evaluation, attribution, and social-cognitive theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance evaluation and intrinsic motivation: The effects of evaluative focus, rewards, and achievement orientation.

Most studies of intrinsic motivation under reward and evaluative contingencies have used social comparison criteria to evaluate subjects' performance. In those studies evaluation tended to reduce intrinsic interest. This study contrasted normative evaluation against a more task-focused evaluation of subjects' performance on an interesting word game and examined the role of achievement motivation in moderating reactions to performance evaluation. Focus differences were implemented under conditions of performance-contingent reward, anticipated evaluation, and control conditions in which subjects received performance feedback at task conclusion. We predicted that evaluation would reduce interest relative to reward and feedback control groups under a normative focus but not under a task focus and also that a process of competence valuation (Harackiewicz & Manderlink, 1984) would mediate the effects of reward and achievement on interest, especially in normative conditions. The data conformed to these expectations with one exception: Evaluation under a task focus increased intrinsic interest. These results were interpreted in the context of a general model that considers the separate effects of situational contingencies, personality factors, performance and motivational processes, and evaluative outcomes on intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of reward on intrinsic motivation—Negative, neutral, and positive: Comment on Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (1999).

Comments on the meta-analytic review by E. L. Deci et al (see record 1999-01567-001) concerning the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Meta-analyses indicated that rewards increase perceived self-determination and that rewards' effects on intrinsic motivation depend on the performance requirement. Reward for meeting vague performance standards reduced the subsequent choice to carry out the task and did not affect self-reported interest. Reward for meeting absolute performance standards did not affect free choice but increased self-reported interest. Reward for exceeding others increased both free choice and self-reported interest. Applied studies commonly found positive or null relationships between reward and intrinsic motivation. The findings suggest that reward procedures requiring ill-defined or minimal performance convey task triviality, thereby decreasing intrinsic motivation. Reward procedures requiring specific high task performance convey a task's personal or social significance, increasing intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance and motivational deficits of helplessness: The role of motivational orientations.

Examined the hypothesis that the effect of failure feedback in producing learned helplessness would depend on the motivational orientation of a child. 53 4th–6th graders completed a scale of intrinsic vs extrinsic orientation in the classroom and were randomly assigned to success, failure, or control conditions, with the restriction that an approximately equal number of Ss with different motivational orientations were assigned to the different conditions. Extrinsically motivated Ss were predicted to exhibit performance decrement following a failure experience, whereas the opposite was predicted for intrinsically motivated Ss. Success feedback was predicted to enhance subsequent performance only for the intrinsic group. Following success, failure, or no feedback on an activity reflecting spatial skills (an incomplete picture task), Ss' performance on an activity tapping different skills (i.e., anagrams) provided by a 2nd experimenter served as the primary measure of helplessness. Ss' intrinsic motivation in performing the incomplete picture task, a similar task (embedded figures) and a dissimilar task (dots-to-dots) was also examined. Results support the predictions on both performance and intrinsic motivation measures. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the relative effects of positive and negative verbal feedback on males' and females' intrinsic motivation.

Assessed the relative effects of positive and negative feedback on males' and females' intrinsic motivation and attempted to replicate findings by the present authors (see record 1984-30609-001) regarding the mediating effects of feelings of competence on the verbal feedback/intrinsic motivation relation. 30 male and 30 female undergraduates performed an interesting task and received either positive or negative feedback relative to their performance. Ss then filled out intrinsic motivation and feelings of competence scales. Results show that, relative to negative feedback, positive feedback led to higher levels of intrinsic motivation and competence feelings for both males and females. Results of the path analysis involving verbal feedback, competence feelings, and intrinsic motivation revealed a picture clearly in line with a mediating model. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of extrinsic financial rewards on intrinsic motivation.

Utilized a chess-problem task to evaluate E. L. Deci's hypothesis that contingent extrinsic rewards will decrease intrinsic motivation. After observing the amount of time 28 undergraduates spent working on the task in a free period, one group was offered a financial incentive for performing the task while another group was not. One week later, Ss were again observed in a free period and then performed the task again with no financial incentive. Results support the hypothesis, and data that rule out specific methodological criticisms of Deci's paradigm are presented. Findings are discussed in terms of whether extrinsic rewards and motivation interact with intrinsic motivation. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reward contingencies and the development of children's skills and self-efficacy.

Tested the hypothesis that rewards offered for performance attainments during competency development promote children's arithmetic skills and percepts of self-efficacy. 36 children (aged 8 yrs 9 mo to 11 yrs 5 mo) received didactic instruction in division operations and were offered rewards contingent on their actual performance, rewards for simply participating, or no rewards. Results show that performance-contingent rewards led to the highest levels of division skill and self-efficacy, as well as the most rapid problem solving during the training program. In contrast, offering rewards for participation resulted in no benefits compared with offering no rewards. Findings suggest that caution should be used in distributing rewards in educational contexts. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation.

A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d?=?–0.40, –0.36, and –0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completion-contingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d?=?–0.15, and –0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d?=?0.33) and self-reported interest (d?=?0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. The authors review 4 previous meta-analyses of this literature and detail how this study's methods, analyses, and results differed from the previous ones. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Need for cognition and desire for control as moderators of extrinsic reward effects: A person?×?situation approach to the study of intrinsic motivation.

74 Ss in extrinsic-reward or no-reward conditions completed a brainstorming task and then were left alone with the option to engage in additional versions of this task. If the Need for Cognition (NFC) Scale taps intrinsic motivation for effortful cognition (J. T. Cacioppo and R. E. Petty, 1982), the optional task engagement of high-NFC Ss, but not low-NFC Ss, should be undermined by extrinsic reward. Results confirmed this hypothesis, but regression analyses showed that NFC scores' moderation of reward effects was due to their covariation with scores on the Desire for Control Scale (J. M. Burger and H. M. Cooper, 1979). The data suggest that (1) NFC involves intrinsic motivation for effortful cognitive processing, (2) NFC may predict such processing mainly in contexts with minimal extrinsic incentives for processing, and (3) control motivation may be related causally both to extrinsic undermining effects and to individual differences in NFC. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instruction on intrinsic interest: The importance of context.

Examined how contextual cues influence the impact of receiving instructions for improving performance on intrinsic motivation. The authors proposed that whether instruction enhances or decreases motivation depends on the salience of performance goals. Goal salience was proposed to be a function of how an individual defines the activity, which, in turn, may be influenced by contextual features. To test this hypothesis, the authors used a computer game that emphasized fantasy in addition to skill, and they varied the presence of contextual cues highlighting performance. In Study 1, the authors varied the presence of prior performance feedback, and found that instruction decreased interest only when no prior performance feedback (positive or negative) was received. In Study 2, the authors explicitly manipulated contextual salience by describing the activity's goals as either skill- or fantasy-related. Instruction decreased interest in the fantasy-emphasis context, but increased interest in the skill-emphasis context. Furthermore, when instruction matched perceived goals Ss experienced greater positive affect while performing the task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Incremental effects of reward on creativity.

The authors examined 2 ways reward might increase creativity. First, reward contingent on creativity might increase extrinsic motivation. Studies 1 and 2 found that repeatedly giving preadolescent students reward for creative performance in 1 task increased their creativity in subsequent tasks. Study 3 reported that reward promised for creativity increased college students' creative task performance. Second, expected reward for high performance might increase creativity by enhancing perceived self-determination and, therefore, intrinsic task interest. Study 4 found that employees' intrinsic job interest mediated a positive relationship between expected reward for high performance and creative suggestions offered at work. Study 5 found that employees' perceived self-determination mediated a positive relationship between expected reward for high performance and the creativity of anonymous suggestions for helping the organization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When rewards reflect competence: A qualification of the overjustification effect.

Suggests that it is not contingency per se, but whether the rewards provide information about the Ss' competence, that determines how Ss will react to rewards. Results from 118 female university students reveal that when rewards did not indicate level of ability, higher rewards led to less intrinsic motivation, regardless of whether these rewards were contingent. But when the level of reward reflected ability (higher rewards were supposedly given for greater skill), higher rewards led to greater intrinsic motivation. This latter result is similar to findings in the control condition in which Ss were not given any rewards but were given competency information. Results are discussed in terms of their application to educational and business settings where rewards are often based on ability. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations: Reward-induced changes in preference for complexity.

Intrinsic motivational orientations are characterized by preference for activities that are relatively complex, challenging, and entertaining. Extrinsic motivational orientations are characterized by preference for activities that are relatively simple, predictable, and easily completed. The introduction of task-contingent reward fosters an extrinsic motivational orientation, and this orientation may carry over into subsequent unrewarded interactions with the activity. To test this analysis, 30 2nd graders in Study 1 played with a novel game of intermediate complexity in 1 of 3 conditions: no reward, task-noncontingent reward, or task-contingent reward. In a subsequent free-choice period, simple, intermediate, and complex versions of the game, as well as several other activities, were available. As predicted, contingent-reward Ss showed the strongest preference for the simple versions of the game, while no-reward Ss tended to prefer the intermediate version. Task-noncontingent-reward Ss showed a strong preference for the most complex version of the game. In Study 2 with 54 4th graders, the effects of reward on simple and intermediate-complexity tasks were replicated. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Septal lesions and incentive expectancies in rats.

Tested male albino Wistar rats with bilateral septal lesions on a multiple DRL schedule with large and small rewards. The lesion produced less efficient DRL performance under both conditions. Small rewards produced more efficient DRL responding in controls and brain-damaged Ss. A 2nd study investigated runway conditioning under immediate, delayed, and no reward. Septal lesions increased running speeds with immediate reward, maintained faster speeds during the early delayed-reward trials, but produced no differences during extinction. A 3rd experiment investigated the effects of immediate and delayed rewards on auditory discrimination learning in septal and control Ss. Brain-damaged Ss showed inferior discrimination performance with delayed rewards but not with immediate rewards. Data suggest that septal lesions alter cognitive strategies (i.e., expectancies) based on incentive characteristics. (French abstract) (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competence, achievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation: A process analysis.

Three sources of competence information were manipulated in an experiment in which 120 male 15–18 yr olds worked on a word game, after being given an expectancy for success and an objective standard for average performance, to investigate the process through which competence information affects intrinsic motivation. It was predicted that performance cues that differed in terms of objectivity and timing during task performance would affect task interest differentially and that the effects of competence information would vary according to achievement orientation. Normative feedback was provided after task completion. Results show that the effects of the cues on self-efficacy and task interest were generally consistent with A. Bandura's (1982) self-efficacy model of intrinsic motivation. Objective information provided before the game was optimal in enhancing self-efficacy and interest for all Ss. High achievers responded positively to competence cues, whereas cues providing positive feedback about ability reduced interest for low achievers. Path analytic process analysis indicated that mediational structures also varied according to achievement orientation. Competence information enhanced high achievers' valuation of competence which had a positive causal impact on subsequent intrinsic motivation. In contrast, efficacy expectations mediated increases in intrinsic motivation for low achievers. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competence and the overjustification effect: A developmental study.

Examined the conditions under which information regarding competence would mitigate the negative side effects of rewards on the intrinsic interest of preschool and middle elementary school children. 144 nursery school and 3rd–5th graders engaging in a task of high initial interest anticipated a reward made contingent either upon meeting a standard based on absolute performance level or upon task engagement alone, or they were not rewarded. In addition, Ss were provided with direct information concerning competence presented in terms of social comparison. Results indicate that the preschool children were primarily affected by information about meeting the absolute standard but not the social comparison information. That is, the overjustification effect did not occur when attaining a reward was made contingent on meeting an absolute standard of performance. Social comparison information superseded the effect of the contingency of the reward on subsequent interest in the target task for the older children. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)