Personality characteristics of women's assertiveness training group participants.

Compared the personality characteristics of 25 female undergraduate volunteers for a women's assertiveness group with a control group of vocational counselees and the norm group on the EPPS. The effectiveness of assertiveness training was also briefly examined. Results suggest that the women in assertiveness training are highly concerned with the approval of others and moderately inhibited in expressing their feelings and are thus "unassertive" but that in most respects they are autonmous and integrated. The training appeared successful, resulting in a decrease in measured anxiety (Willoughby Questionnaire) and an increase in reported assertive behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How unassertive women perceive emotional expressions.

Examined assertive and unassertive women's perception of others' emotional reactions. 96 undergraduate women completed the College Self-Expression Scale, an assertiveness inventory. Ss were presented with 12 requests which they imagined refusing. Ss were then shown, in sequence, 3 different photographs depicting the other person's response. Ss identified and indicated the intensity of the particular emotion they saw in the photograph. Results indicate that when viewing a smiling expression, low assertive Ss saw significantly more negative emotion and less positive emotion than high assertive Ss. High and low assertive Ss did not differ in the emotion they perceived in the slightly distressed or very distressed expressions. Results suggest an interpersonal focus in understanding unassertive behavior. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assertiveness expectancies: How hard people push depends on the consequences they predict.

The present article seeks to explain varying levels of assertiveness in interpersonal conflict and negotiations with assertiveness expectancies, idiosyncratic predictions people make about the social and instrumental consequences of assertive behavior. This account complements motivation-based models of assertiveness and competitiveness, suggesting that individuals may possess the same social values (e.g., concern for relationships) but show dramatically different assertiveness due to different assumptions about behavioral consequences. Results clarify the form of assertiveness expectancies, namely that most people assume increasing assertiveness can yield positive social and instrumental benefits up to a point, beyond which benefits decline. However, people vary in how assertive this perceived optimal point is. These individual differences in expectancies are linked in 4 studies to assertiveness, including self-reported assertiveness, rated behavioral preferences in assorted interpersonal conflict scenarios, partner ratings of participants' behavior in a face-to-face dyadic negotiation, and work colleague ratings of participants' assertiveness in the workplace. In each case, the link between expectancies and behavior remained after controlling for values. The results suggest a place for expectancies alongside values in psychological models of interpersonal assertiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social desirability responding in the measurement of assertive behavior.

Investigated social desirability responding in the measurement of assertive behavior. 30 22–56 yr old middle-class women completed self-report and analogue behavioral measures of assertion and anxiety before and after assertiveness training. The measures included the Assertion Inventory, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and role-played assertiveness scenes during a telephone call. Consistent with social desirability theory and research, high social desirability scorers described themselves as more assertive and less anxious than low scorers, but were behaviorally less assertive than low scorers. Although both high and low scorers improved their assertion skills, high scorers did not appear less anxious after assertiveness training, unlike low scorers. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of social competence in borderline essestial hypertension.

Examined the social competence of 22 male borderline hypertensives (aged 19–45 yrs) in relation to cardiovascular responsivity to a behavioral role-play test (RPT) of assertiveness. Ss were divided into 2 groups: one group experienced large increases in pulse pressure (PP) in response to social challenge (Group 1), while the other group showed small changes in PP (relatively equal rises in systolic and diastolic blood pressure) under the same stimulus condition (Group 2). These differential group patterns of cardiovascular response were specific to interpersonal stressors because the groups did not differ in reactivity to cognitive challenges. Group 2 Ss evidenced unassertive responding on a role-play test of negative assertion and were rated by significant others as the least socially competent as compared to normotensive controls (who received the highest social competence ratings) and Ss in Group 1. Group 1 Ss responded in an inappropriately assertive fashion on the RPT and had shorter response latencies during the RPT than Ss in Group 2, suggesting that Ss in Group 2 had greater levels of interpersonal anxiety. Findings indicate that hostile inappropriate assertiveness and inappropriate submissiveness may be associated with hypertension. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assertion training and trainer effects on unassertive and aggressive adolescents.

Examined the effects of assertion training and trainers on 90 adolescents selected for their unassertive or aggressive behavior with teachers. Structured learning training (SLT) was compared with instruction conditions and no-treatment conditions on self-report and in vivo measures of assertive behavior. For SLT groups, trainers were varied for their situational similarity to teachers. The result yielded a 2?×?5 factorial design, varying type of participant (unassertive vs aggressive) and type of training (SLT with teachers, parents, or students as trainers vs verbal instructions and no-treatment conditions). SLT improved assertive behavior in teacher situations. Effects generalized to novel teacher, parent, and student situations and to the in vivo test as a 1 wk follow-up. The SLT with teacher trainers produced more assertive behavior in teacher situations than did all other groups. Test performance was differentially affected by type of participant. Results suggest person and situation specificity of behavior. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situational determinants of assertive behaviors.

Administered 32 assertive situations that varied in social-interpersonal context to 60 male 21-67 yr old hospitalized psychiatric patients via role playing. Half of the role-played situations required the expression of negative (hostile) assertiveness, and the other half required positive (commendatory) assertive expression. Situational context was varied by having Ss respond to male and female interpersonal partners who were either familiar or unfamiliar to Ss. Responses were videotaped and rated on 5 measures of speech content and 7 measures of nonverbal behavior. Additionally, groups of high- and low-assertive patients were identified from the total sample using a behavioral measure of global assertiveness and a self-report instrument. Results indicate that interpersonal behavior in assertive situations varied as a function of social context. Further, high- and low-assertive Ss were differentiated on the basis of 9 of the 12 measures of interpersonal behavior. Support for a stimulus specific theory of assertive behaviors and implications for assertive training are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linguistic analysis of an assertiveness training film.

Analyzed stylistic complexity and verb usage in the text of the film Responsible Assertion, an assertiveness training film, using the Computer-Assisted Language Analysis System. Findings suggest that the assertive language in the film was characterized by a wordy, complex style full of many embedded clauses and that assertive speech consisted of monologues containing qualifying phrases. Results suggest that assertiveness trainers should emphasize wordiness and persistence rather than simple sentences. Data indicate that an emphasis on feelings was not crucial in behavior that was judged assertive. Implications for understanding the process and outcome of therapy are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What motivates fairness? The role of subordinate assertive behavior on manager's interactional fairness.

This study investigated the proposition that a subordinate's communication style can affect a manager's fairness behavior during decision making and, consequently, can affect the subordinate's attitudes toward the decision, manager, and organization. Two studies were conducted to test these propositions in the context of performance appraisal decisions. First, a laboratory study demonstrated that appraisers engage in more interactionally fair behavior when interacting with an assertive appraisee than with an unassertive appraisee. Second, a quasiexperimental field design showed that training employees on assertiveness, when coupled with self-appraisal, is associated with positive attitudes toward the appraisal and trust in the manager. Implications for understanding the causes of fair behavior and improving the fairness of decisions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral and bodily self concept changes after assertive training. A pilot study

The study aims at finding correlations between the development of assertiveness through assertive training and the modification of the bodily self concept (or body image). Eleven social phobic patients (6 women, 5 men, mean age 31.5) are treated in two groups and measured by Rathus's assertiveness schedule, and Osgood's semantic differential (key concepts: my self, my body, my voice, my gestures, my look; control concept: a table). At post test and follow-up (between 6 and 9 months), an ANOVA shows a significant positive change in assertiveness (p 0.001), correlated with modifications in bodily self concept. The patients are rating their body and their look as more active and stronger, but the body is perceived as more dangerous (p 0.05). No change appears in the other key concepts and the control concept. The interrelation between behavioral and cognitive changes are discussed.     

Effects of instructionally mediated demand on the behavioral assessment of assertiveness.

Self-reported unassertive undergraduates participated in behavioral role-playing situations under low- and high-demand instructions. Analyses of Ss' responses for overall assertiveness, response latency, and response duration showed significant effects and/or interactions of demand characteristics on latency, time, and assertion scores. Results are relevant for the clinical determination of whether individuals' unassertiveness might be due to acquisition or performance deficits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assertive training: A one year follow-up.

Reports results of a 1-yr follow-up of group assertive training with 20 of the 32 nonassertive college students in the original study. One yr after training, experimental and control Ss were significantly different on 2 self-report measures (the College Self-Expression Scale and the Subjective Unit of Disturbance Scale) and 2 of 4 behavioral measures (assertive content and scene length) of assertiveness. No differences were found on eye contact or response latency. Results indicate the long-term effects of assertive training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Demand characteristics and inferential processes in psychotherapeutic change.

Assigned 87 19–54 yr old unassertive Ss to 4 types of imaginary role playing: (a) roles based on personality attributes presenting demand characteristics for changing self-concepts, (b) social skills training, (c) exposure to stressful social situations, and (d) a neutral social situation control group. Pre- and post-role-playing scores on a self-concept instrument were determined. ANOVAs showed that Ss who participated in condition (a) increased significantly in assertiveness and self-esteem and decreased significantly in social discomfort compared to the control Ss. It is suggested that general therapeutic factors involve demand variables that cue Ss to alter their self-concepts. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A principal components analysis of the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule.

Performed a principal components analysis of the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS) to investigate the adequacy of this inventory as a global measure of assertiveness. The analysis (using 956 undergraduate Ss) indicated that the RAS does not provide a unidimensional index of assertiveness, but rather measures a number of factors including situation-specific assertive behavior, aggressiveness, and a more general assertiveness. The results are discussed in relation to the small number of items comprising the schedule and the rather limited repertoire of different behavioral situations sampled in the items. These problems make it difficult to adequately define the individual factors revealed by the principal components analysis. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of adaptive assertiveness in Mexican and United States children.

Used a novel behavioral task, the assertiveness pull scale, and unobtrusive measures (e.g., number of questions asked of E) to assess the development of assertiveness of 154 boys and girls of 3 age groups (5-6, 7-9 and 10-12 yrs) in 4 populations. Urban middle-class Anglo-American children were significantly more assertive than semirural poor Anglo-American and Mexican-American children, who did not differ from each other but who were both significantly more assertive than rural poor Mexican children. Assertiveness increased with age for all groups, but at a slower rate among rural Mexican than among US children. No significant effects due to sex were observed. Results parallel population and age findings of previous studies of competitiveness. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Research Issues in Assertiveness Training.

An evaluative review of research into assertiveness and assertiveness training is presented to highlight methodological problems that have hampered research. The inadequacies of current definitions of assertiveness are reviewed and a new definition is offered. Components of assertive behavior and of assertiveness training are identified. An assessment of the measurement tools for assertiveness is provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and empirical evaluation of a self-administered assertiveness training program.

A self-administered assertiveness training program, developed from empirical data involving assertiveness training and self-control, was designed to train refusal of unreasonable requests not only from strangers but also in the context of close relationships in which continuation of the relationship is important. A comparison with a procedurally parallel placebo program, which was empirically established to be equally credible, indicated that both programs increased assertive expression of rights. (Ss were 20 volunteers.) However, the assertiveness program produced superior effectiveness of assertion, content of assertion, verbalization of assertion-related obligations, persistent assertive responding, and rational cognitive behaviors. (1 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of covert modeling and model reinforcement on assertive behavior.

Investigated the effect of covert modeling in developing assertive behavior in 45 17-52 yr olds. Nonassertive Ss received covert modeling (imagined scenes in which a model performed assertively), covert modeling plus reinforcement (imagined scenes in which a model performed assertively and favorable consequences followed model performance), no modeling (imagined scenes with neither an assertive model nor favorable consequences), or delayed treatment (no-treatment controls who subsequently received either covert modeling or modeling plus reinforcement). In 4 treatment sessions, both model and model-reinforcement conditions improved significantly on self-report inventories (Conflict Resolution Inventory, Action Situation Inventory, Wolpe-Lazarus Assertive Training Scale, and Wolpe's Willoughby Scale) and a role-playing test of assertiveness. The modeling-reinforcement group tended to show greater assertiveness at posttreatment assessment and follow-up. The effects of covert modeling were maintained up to a 3-mo follow-up assessment. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effectiveness of booster sessions in the maintenance and enhancement of treatment gains following assertion training.

46 unassertive Ss were randomly assigned to assertion training (AT) or waiting-list control conditions. Ss receiving AT showed significantly greater improvements from pretreatment to posttreatment on 8 out of 10 questionnaire measures of assertiveness and 3 out of 5 direct behavioral observation measures compared with the waiting-list group. 27 Ss who had completed the AT program were then randomly assigned to 1 of 3 booster conditions, namely, monthly AT boosters (ATB), monthly attention placebo boosters (APB) or no boosters (NB). At the 3-mo follow-up there was minimal difference between booster conditions. By the 6-mo follow-up the results favored the ATB condition. Although the APB procedure was effective in preventing the relapse shown by the NB Ss, the ATB group actually showed further improvements on some measures of assertiveness during the 6-mo follow-up period. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)