Studies on Desi and Kabull Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Cultivars: Levels of Protease Inhibitors, Levels of Polyphenolic Compounds and in vitro Protein Digestibility

The levels of trypsin inhibitor activity were higher in both kabuli and desi seeds of chickpea than their chymotrypsin inhibitor activity. Mean values for the trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor units in dhal and seed samples of desi were higher as compared with kabuli cultivars. The presence of seed coat reduced the protein extraction. Mean values of polyphenolic compounds in seed samples of desi were more than twice that of kabuli and these differences disappeared in dhal samples indicating the distribution of these compounds mainly in the seed coat. The in vitro protein digestibility studies showed larger differences between desi seed and dhal samples when compared with kabuli seed and dhal samples. Polyphenolic compounds exhibited a highly significant and negative corretation (r = 0.872**) with in vitro digestibility of protein and a significant positive correlation with trypsin (r = 0.612*) and chymotrypsin (r = 0.507*) inhibitor activities.     

Cooking quality and nutritional attributes of some nely developed cultivars of chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

Eight nely developed and to commonly gron chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) cultivars ere evaluated for their cooking quality by measuring cooking time, ater absorption and sensory properties. Nutritional aspects of cooked hole seed samples ere measured chemically (including amino acids and minerals) and biologically in nitrogen-balance experiments ith rats. Results indicated that kabuli (cream seed coat) may be generally preferred to desi (bron seed coat) cultivars in terms of cooking time and sensory properties. Calcium content as noticeably higher in desi than in kabuli cultivars, hereas magnesium, iron, copper and zinc shoed no definite trend. Levels of lysine, threonine, methionine and cystine of these genotypes ere ithin the range of FAO values. Desi and kabuli revealed no noticeable difference in protein and amino acids. Hoever, biological value as considerably higher for kabuli than for desi. Consequently, kabuli contained more utilisable protein and may be nutritionally better than desi. In general, cooking quality and nutritional aspects of both nely developed and control cultivars ere similar.     

Variability of Some Physico-chemical Characters in Desi and Kabuli Chickpea Types

A collection of 50 chickpea accessions (26 kabuli and 24 desi types) was evaluated for 2 years for eight physico-chemical seed characters: 100-seed weight, hydration capacity, hydration index, coat thickness and contents of protein, oil, acid detergent fibre (ADF) and starch. Significant differences were found between desi and kabuli types for the majority of the characters. The variance component due to the genotype×year interaction was important for the hydration index, starch and protein content, showing the importance of the year effect on genotypic expression of these characters. One kabuli accession and five desi accessions with high and stable protein content were selected. There was no overlap between the variation limits of desi and kabuli for coat thickness and ADF content. There were high positive and significant correlations between seed weight and oil content for both types of chickpea.     

A Method to Estimate the Hydration and Swelling Properties of Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

ABSTRACT:  Existing methodologies for estimating hydration properties in pulses (a potential indicator of cooking time) can be misleading and few measure both maximum hydration and the rate of hydration. Therefore, a new method, based on the Mitscherlich equation, was proposed and compared to existing methodologies. It was shown to be a superior estimator of both maximum hydration and hydration rate in desi and kabuli chickpeas. The new method was also superior for estimating maximum swelling and the rate of swelling in desi and kabuli chickpeas. Hydration and swelling data for 6 desi and 4 kabuli chickpea genotypes were compared using the new method and showed large genotypic differences. Use of the new method is recommended for estimating the hydration parameters of desi and kabuli chickpea for industry purposes and for selection of genotypes in breeding programs.     

Inhibitor activities of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L) against bovine,pocine and human trypsin and chymotrypsin

Twenty-two chickpea samples (7 genotypes, 4 desi and 3 kabuli) representing three different sites of cultivation and three years of harvest were examined for their inhibitory activities against bovine, porcine and human trypsin/chymotrypsin, and compared for their isoinhibitor patterns. No significant difference in inhibitor activity between the desi and kabuli seed types was found for any of the enzymes used, when data from different locations and years were averaged. However, some significant differences were observed between individual cultivars when compared at the same location and in the same year. Inhibitor activities against the three trypsins and three chymotrypsins were statistically different with activities against bovine (5.46 ± 1.21) > porcine (5.24 ± 1.18) > human (4.45 ± 0.93) trypsin and those against bovine (4.89 ± 1.27) < porcine (8.91 ± 2.14) < human (10.54 ± 2.50) chymotrypsin (means ± standard deviation, expressed as mg active enzyme completely inhibited per g seed meal). Levels of activity of both trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor were influenced by the location and year of cultivation. Isoelectric focusing yielded identical inhibitor patterns for all samples, indicating seven isoinhibitors acting against trypsin and chymotrypsin. Results are discussed in relation to nutritional significance of these inhibitors and perspectives for breeding genotypes low in protcase inhibitors.     

Characterization of protein isolates from different Indian chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars

Protein isolates prepared by alkaline solubilization followed by isoelectric precipitation and freeze drying from desi (PBG-1, PDG-4, PDG-3, GL-769, and GPF-2) and kabuli (L-550) chickpea cultivars were evaluated for functional (water and oil absorption capacities, least gelation concentration, foaming capacity and stability) and thermal properties. Significant difference (P ? 0.05) in properties of kabuli and desi chickpea protein isolates was observed. Kabuli chickpea protein isolate showed significantly (P ? 0.05) higher ash (1.14%), protein (94.4%), L^∗, ΔE value, oil absorption capacity (OAC) and lower water absorption capacity (WAC) than their corresponding desi chickpea protein isolates. The solubility-pH profile of different protein isolates showed minimum solubility in the pH between 4.0 and 5.0 and two regions of maximum solubility at pH 2.5 and 7.0. Foaming capacity of all protein isolates increased with the increase in concentration. Kabuli chickpea protein isolate showed the highest foam stability (94.7%) after 120 min of storage. The thermal properties of protein isolates from different chickpea cultivars were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Protein isolates from both the chickpea types differed significantly (P ? 0.05) in peak denaturation temperature (T_d) and heat of transition (ΔH). Kabuli type protein isolate exhibited lower T_d and ΔH value as compared to those from desi types. The interrelationships between characteristics of protein isolates showed a significant (P ? 0.05) negative correlation of T_d with protein content and OAC. It was also observed that cultivars with high fat content had high ΔH and lower WAC.     

In vitro starch digestibility,expected glycemic index,and thermal and pasting properties of flours from pea,lentil and chickpea cultivars

In vitro starch digestibility, expected glycemic index (eGI), and thermal and pasting properties of flours from pea, lentil and chickpea grown in Canada under identical environmental conditions were investigated. The protein content and gelatinization transition temperatures of lentil flour were higher than those of pea and chickpea flours. Chickpea flour showed a lower amylose content (10.8–13.5%) but higher free lipid content (6.5–7.1%) and amylose–lipid complex melting enthalpy (0.7–0.8 J/g). Significant differences among cultivars within the same species were observed with respect to swelling power, gelatinization properties, pasting properties and in vitro starch digestibility, especially chickpea flour from desi (Myles) and kabuli type (FLIP 97-101C and 97-Indian2-11). Lentil flour was hydrolyzed more slowly and to a lesser extent than pea and chickpea flours. The amount of slowly digestible starch (SDS) in chickpea flour was the highest among the pulse flours, but the resistant starch (RS) content was the lowest. The eGI of lentil flour was the lowest among the pulse flours.     

Characterisations of kabuli and desi chickpea starches cultivated in China

The characterisation of starches from kabuli and desi type chickpea seeds was investigated by monitoring amylose content, swelling power, solubility, synaeresis, water-binding capacity and turbidity properties. Total amylose and apparent amylsoe content were 31.80% and 29.93% for kabuli and 35.24% and 31.11% for desi, respectively. The shape of starch granules varied from round to oval or elliptic. The transition temperatures (T_o, T_p and T_c) were (62.237, 67.000 and 72.007 °C) and (59.396, 68.833 and 77.833 °C) for kabuli and desi starches, respectively. The ΔH value of kabuli type was higher than that of desi type. The crystal type of chickpea starches was a typical C_A-type pattern. Breakdown and setback viscosity of kabuli starch were lower than those of desi starch, indicating high heat and shear stability. Kabuli starch showed a higher value of M_w (5.382 × 10⁷ g/mol) than desi starch (3.536 × 10⁷ g/mol). Both kabuli and desi starches belonged to low glycaemic starches from measuring starch fractions and hydrolysis index.     

Content of low molecular weight carbohydrates in vining peas (Pisum sativum) after blanching and freezing: effect of cultivar and cultivation conditions

The content of low molecular weight carbohydrates (LMWC, glucose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) was investigated in 29 cultivars of vining peas after blanching and freezing. The peas were harvested at about the same degree of ripeness. There was a positive correlation between the amount of raffinose, stachyose and sorbitol, while a high content of verbascose only could be seen when there was a low content of these sugars. High concentrations of sucrose were generally associated with high concentrations of glucose and fructose. Samples from 1999 had a significantly (p < 0.001) higher content of raffinose, stachyose and sorbitol and lower of verbascose, probably because of the drier and warmer summer that year compared with 1998. Furthermore, medium and late maturing cultivars contained larger amounts of raffinose, stachyose and sorbitol than early cultivars, possibly due to the fact that these cultivars, to a greater extent, were exposed to a higher temperature and more intense sunlight for a longer time. Considerable differences in the content of LMWC could be seen both between the different cultivars and the various trials. Glucose and sucrose were generally similarly affected by cultivar and cultivation conditions, while cultivation conditions had a greater influence on the content of sorbitol and the raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO; raffinose, stachyose, verbascose) in late‐maturing groups. It is concluded that many factors affect the content of LMWC in peas. However, as the content of RFO is comparatively small in vining peas, any nutritional significance of these sugars in the human colon is probably rather small. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Comparison of the functional properties of pea,chickpea and lentil protein concentrates processed using ultrafiltration and isoelectric precipitation techniques

In this study, two methods, isoelectric precipitation (IEP) and ultrafiltration (UF) were optimised for the extraction of proteins from yellow pea, desi and kabuli chickpeas, red and green lentils. For IEP, the following optimal extraction conditions were used: pH 9.5, 1/15 solid/liquid ratio, 35 °C for yellow pea, desi and kabuli chickpeas, and pH 9.0, 1/10 solid/liquid ratio, 25 °C for red and green lentils. UF experiments were performed with a 50 kDa MWCO membrane with diafiltration (4X) at pH 6.0. The initial protein content of the pulses (16.7–24.8%, w/w) was concentrated nearly 4-fold. UF process generated concentrates with slightly higher protein contents (69.1–88.6%, w/w) compared to the IEP process (63.9–81.7%, w/w). Yields for both processes on a protein basis ranged from 50.3% to 69.1% (w/w). All concentrates exhibited good functional properties. However, functional properties varied to some extent as a function of the type of pulse and manufacturing process. For pH ranging from 1 to 3 and from 7 to 10, the red and green lentil concentrates were the most soluble (70–77%) and their UF concentrates were more soluble at all pH values studied compared to the IEP samples which was not the case for the pea and chickpea samples. Water holding capacity was highest for IEP-processed yellow pea and lowest for the UF-processed desi and kabuli chickpeas. Emulsifying properties and foam expansion were generally higher for the chickpea concentrates but they had less foam stability. Protein extracts from green lentils appeared to have the best gelling properties. The results highlight the technological potential of pulse protein extracts for food applications.     

Subunit,amino acid composition and in vitro digestibility of protein isolates from Chinese kabuli and desi chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars

The subunit, amino acid composition and in vitro digestibility of the two protein isolates (GCPI and ZCPI) from one kabuli and one desi chickpea cultivars, grown extensively in Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China, were investigated and compared with those of soy protein isolate (SPI). SDS–PAGE showed that GCPI and ZCPI had almost the same band components under the reduced and unreduced conditions, with only minor difference in relative quantity for some bands, but different from that of SPI. The sulphur-containing amino acids were the first limiting amino acids for all three protein isolates of GCPI (2.11 g/100 g), ZCPI (2.20 g/100 g) and SPI (1.99 g/100 g). Amino acid score of the three protein isolates could reach the FAO/WHO requirement (1990) for the essential amino acids for preschool children. The order of in vitro digestibility was GCPI (87.47%) > ZCPI (80.82%) > SPI (71.04%). Our results indicated that, compared with soybean protein isolate, Chinese kabuli and desi chickpea protein isolates had higher digestibility value, and chickpea protein, especially for kabuli protein, could be utilized as a good source of protein for human nutrition.     

高产α-半乳糖苷酶乳酸菌发酵对鹰嘴豆酸面团生化特性及其面包烘焙品质的影响

使用一株高产α-半乳糖苷酶的发酵乳杆菌C2-8作为鹰嘴豆酸面团发酵剂,通过高效液相色谱法、质构仪分析、固相微萃取结合气相色谱-质谱联用、电子舌分析和感官评定等方法,研究其对鹰嘴豆酸面团有机酸含量、棉子糖、水苏糖和还原糖含量、游离氨基酸水平及面包烘焙品质的影响。结果表明：鹰嘴豆酸面团发酵24 h后产生62.67 mmol/kg乳酸和15.53 mmol/kg乙酸,酸面团棉子糖及水苏糖完全被降解,还原糖质量分数达到11.50%,总游离氨基酸含量是发酵前的1.26 倍。比容及质构数据表明,鹰嘴豆酸面团面包（chickpea sourdough bread,CSB）较鹰嘴豆面包（chickpea bread,CB）比容提高4.60%,硬度降低18.49%,咀嚼性降低15.64%。CSB的醇类、酸类、酯类、酮类风味化合物峰面积较CB明显提高,其中苯乙醇峰面积提高1.04 倍,甜味、咸味、鲜味、酸味等滋味均优于CB,风味特性整体得到改善。除色泽评分外,CSB其他感官评定指标得分均高于CB,整体可接受度达到7.2 分。     

Oil Absorption and Sensory Properties of a Snack Food from Chickpea Genotypes

Among the commonly consumed grain legumes the score on general acceptability of a snack food (seviya) was the highest for that from chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) followed by lentil, pigeonpea and green gram, whereas the oil absorption by the product was highest for lentil followed by black gram, chickpea, and green gram. Different methods of dehulling did not cause any notable effects on oil absorption of chickpea seviya. The flour particle size, starch, and protein contents significantly influenced oil absorption of seviya. The oil absorption of the product differed significantly among genotypes, but clear cut differences were not found between desi and kabuli groups of chickpea genotypes.     

Pattern of egg distribution by Adzuki bean beetle,Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Chysomelidae) in stored chickpea under natural infestation

Under laboratory experimental condition female Adzuki bean beetles, Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) are known to evenly distribute their eggs over grains available for egg laying. However, currently there are no data on pattern of egg distribution by Adzuki bean beetle in large quantity of chickpea grain stored for extended period of time. The objective of this study was to determine the number and distribution of eggs among grains of chickpea stored in large quantity for 8 months and subjected to natural infestations. The experiment was conducted under room temperature and relative humidity at Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center. The chickpea cultivars used were Natoli (desi type, 22 g per 100 seeds with Tuberculated seed coat texture) and Arerti (kabuli type, 26 g per 100 seeds with smooth seed coat texture) and for each cultivar there were 21 replicas of bags (40 cm wide and 70 cm high). From each bag, which contains 10 kg each, 25 chickpea grain samples were randomly selected at monthly intervals and examined for the presence or absence of Adzuki bean beetle eggs. Grains with eggs were categorized into frequency classes (i.e. 0, 1, 2, …, n) based on the number of eggs present on them. The variance to mean ratio was used to decide the type of egg dispersion pattern. In all the sampling dates and on both cultivars, the variance to mean ratios were highly significantly greater than one indicating that egg distribution by female Adzuki bean beetles on grains of chickpea was aggregated type. Moreover, further analysis of data had shown that the egg distribution pattern perfectly fits the negative binomial distribution, which confirms that the pattern of egg distribution on chickpea grains was aggregated/clumped type.     

Determination of oligosaccharide contents in 19 cultivars of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) seeds by high performance liquid chromatography

The extraction procedure of oligosaccharides from chickpea seeds was optimized and sufficient extraction was achieved with 50% of ethanol-water in a ratio of 10:1 for solvent to defatted chickpea meal at 50 °C for 30 min. Under the optimal extraction conditions, the contents of oligosaccharides in 19 cultivars of chickpea seeds were determined by HPLC. The results showed that the main α-galactooligosaccharides (α-GOS) in chickpea seeds were raffinose, stachyose, verbascose and an unknown glycoside, which was isolated, purified, and identified as ciceritol. Ciceritol, the main sugar in all the chickpea samples, accounted for about 50% of the total α-GOS. There were considerable variations in the levels of α-GOS and sucrose between species, especially verbascose which could only be detected in 7 samples. With the highest amount of α-GOS and a low amount of sucrose, the 171 was the best choice for obtaining α-GOS for use as a prebiotic in functional foods.     

Chickpea leaves as a vegetable green for humans: evaluation of mineral composition

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is generally consumed as a seed food, being a good source of protein and other essential human nutrients. However, young chickpea leaves are also eaten as a cooked vegetable green in certain parts of the world and could be a useful source of dietary nutrients, especially in malnourished populations. Because little information is available on the mineral content of this food, we characterised leaf mineral concentrations in 19 diverse accessions of chickpea. Both desi and kabuli chickpea types were studied. All plants were greenhouse‐grown and were fertilised daily with a complete mineral solution. Young, fully expanded leaves (fourth through seventh nodes from the apex) were harvested at both early and late vegetative stages. The leaves were dried, ashed and analysed for mineral concentrations. Macronutrient mineral (Ca, Mg, K, P) concentrations varied from 1.3‐fold to 1.8‐fold and micronutrient mineral (Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, B, Ni) concentrations varied from 1.5‐fold to 2.4‐fold across all accessions. No major differences were observed in leaf mineral concentrations between the kabuli and desi types; mineral concentrations were generally lower in leaves collected at the later harvest date. Microscopic analyses demonstrated that all accessions contained crystal inclusions, suggestive of calcium oxalate crystals. Overall, chickpea leaves were found to be a good source of several minerals required by humans, and the levels of most of these minerals significantly exceeded those previously reported for spinach and cabbage. Published in 2003 by Society of Chemical Industry[This is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the U.S.A.]     

Chemical analysis and physico-chemical properties of chickpea and lentil cultivars

Some high yielding cultivars of chickpea (Kabuli and desi) (Cicer arietinum) and lentil (Lens esculenta) were used for chemical analysis and physico-chemical properties namely protein, fat, sugars, starch, in vitro digestibility of starch and protein; seed weight, seed volume, seed density, hydration capacity, swelling capacity, water absorption capacity and cooking time. Among chickpea, Gora Hisari (Kabuli) and Haryana Chana (desi) cultivars, and among lentil LH 82-6 cultivar manifested higher contents of protein, fat, sugars, starch and in vitro digestibility of starch and protein. Values of seed volume, seed density, hydration capacity, swelling capacity and water absorption capacity were also found higher for these cultivars which might have contributed towards less cooking time.     

Oligosaccharides in Eleven Legumes and Their Air-Classified Protein and Starch Fractions

Oligosaccharide compositions of flours from dehulled seeds of eleven legumes were determined by gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy. While soybean contained 11.7% sugars, concentrations in lupine, cowpea, chickpea and lentil were about 8%; lima, navy and northern beans, field pea, mung bean and fababean contained about 5% of sugars. Sucrose represented 20–55% of the total sugars; stachyose was the principal α-galactoside in most species. In addition, high amounts of manninotriose were found in chickpea and lentil flours whereas verbascose was a major component in field pea, mung bean and fababean flours. The nine species and biotypes which contained starch were pin milled and air-classified into protein-rich and starch-rich fractions. The protein fractions were 40–90% higher than the flours in α-galactosides, especially raffinose, manninotriose, stachyose and verbascose. The starch fractions were depleted in α-galactosides, the concentrations varied from 1.2–2.8% of the fraction.     

Effect of Processing on Certain Antinutrients in Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata)

Four Nigerian cultivars of cowpeas were analyzed for raffinose, stachyose, phytic acid, tannins, and trypsin inhibitory activity after dehulling, cold-soaking, hot-soaking, and cooking as ewa-ibeji and moin-moin (two popular Nigerian cowpea foods). Dehulling decreased stachyose and removed the tannins. Hot-soaking caused a significant reduction in stachyose and trypsin inhibitory activity. Ewa-ibeji and moin-moin contained similar quantities of antinutrients, except for tannins which were absent in moin-moin.     

Comparison of sprout quality characteristics of desi and kabuli type chickpea cultivars (Cicer arietinum L.)

Effect of germination time on comparative sprout quality characteristics (proximate composition, ascorbic acid, phytic acid, invitro protein digestibility, protein solubility and sensory properties) was investigated. Sprouting significantly increased (P<0.01) the moisture, crude protein, crude fat and ascorbic acid contents and decreased nitrogen free extract (NFE). Phytic acid was reduced (P<0.01) with sprouting, but more pronouncedly so in the case of Kabuli type (73% reduction) than in desi type (32% reduction). In-vitro protein digestibility (IVDP) and protein solubility improved significantly (P<0.01) with increase in sprouting time. The overall sensory scores increased with the first (24 h) sprouting interval and then decreased. However, the acceptability scores for both chickpea types remained within the acceptable range (>5.0). Although, organoleptically the desi type chickpea sprouts were preferred over Kabuli type, the nutritional improvement due to sprouting was more pronounced in Kabuli chickpeas than their desi counterparts. Due to overall superior sprout quality, the kabuli type was more suitable for sprouting purposes.